Horticulture notes For IBPS AFO NABARD RRB SO and Other MSC Exams
Topic Covered in this post
1. Floriculture Industry Overview
- Global Trade & Market
- Leading Flower Exporting/Importing Countries
- Major Flower Markets & Organizations
2. Floriculture in India
- Total Area Under Floriculture
- State-wise Floriculture Production
- Leading Exporters/Importers
- Major Flower Crops in India
3. Global Plant & Flower Markets
- Leading Bulbous Plant Producing/Importing Countries
- Major Flower Producing/Exporting Countries
4. Horticulture & Gardening
- Famous Gardens Worldwide & in India
- National Flowers of Different Countries
- Flower Symbolism & Uses
- Plants Originated in India
5. Annual Flowering Plants
- Summer, Rainy, and Winter Annuals
- Flowering Plants for Different Purposes (Hanging Baskets, Pots, etc.)
- Leading Flower Seed Production States
6. Ornamental Plants & Landscaping
- Hedge Plants, Edge Plants & Topiary Plants
- Shrubs (Classification, Propagation, Planting)
- Climbers (Types, Uses, Species)
- Cacti, Succulents & Palms
7. Lawn Care & Gardening
- Grass Selection for Lawns
- Garden Design Elements & Principles
- Popular Gardening Styles
8. Floral Design & Arrangements
- Japanese Ikebana
- Western Floral Arrangements
- Bonsai Techniques
9. Essential Oil Extraction & Perfume Production
- Flower-based Essential Oils
- Global Perfume-Producing Countries
- Concrete & Absolute Extraction Methods
10. Commercial Flower Crops
- Rose
- Gladiolus
- Carnation
- Chrysanthemum
- Marigold
- Orchid
- Jasmine
- Anthurium
- Gerbera
11. Post-Harvest Technology & Storage
- Pulsing Solutions & Storage Temperatures for Flowers
- Post-Harvest Losses & Their Causes
- Processing Technologies (Canning, Drying, Freezing)
12. Pest & Disease Management
- Major Pests & Diseases Affecting Floriculture Crops
- Control Methods for Different Flowers
13. Miscellaneous Information
- Important Breeders of Floriculture Crops
- Chromosome Numbers of Flowers
- Growth Conditions & Pre-cooling Temperatures
Floriculture Industry Overview
Global Trade & Market
| Category | Country/Region |
|---|---|
| Leading flower product exporting country | Netherlands (57%), Colombia (14%) |
| Leading flower product-importing country | Germany, USA |
| Leading cut greens exporting country | Italy, Netherlands |
| Leading dry flower product exporting country | Australia |
| Leading dry flower product importing country | U.K. |
| Largest producer of perfumery products | Bulgaria |
| Leading country with the highest per capita consumption of cut flowers | Switzerland, Norway |
| Leading country with highest per capita consumption of live plants | Norway, Germany |
| The country having the largest market of cut flowers | Germany, USA |
| International flower market | Alsmeer, Netherlands |
| Headquarters of International Cut Flower Growers Association | USA |
| Headquarters of the International Society for Horticultural Science | Belgium |
| International Registration Authority for Rose | USA |
| International Registration Authority for Bougainvillea | New Delhi |
| No. 1 foliage plant at the global level | Dieffenbachia |
| No. 1 cut flower at the global level | Rose |
| Total area under floriculture in the world | 25 lakh hectares |
| Total area under Greenhouse floriculture in the world | 60,000 hectares |
| Total floriculture trade in the world | 20 billion USD/annum |
| India’s share in global floriculture trade | 0-6% |
Floriculture in India
| Category | Data |
|---|---|
| Total area under floriculture in India | 1 lakh hectare (Approximately) |
| State with maximum area under floriculture | Karnataka |
| State with maximum production under floriculture | Tamil Nadu |
| Total area under Greenhouse floriculture in India | 500 hectares |
| Largest importer of floriculture products from India | USA (27%) |
| Share of dry flower products in India’s total export | 60% |
| Maximum cut flower production in India | West Bengal |
| Division of Ornamental Crops started at IIHR | 1969 |
| Division of Floriculture and Landscaping started at IARI | 1983 |
| 1st AICRP on Floriculture started | 1971 |
| Flower crops covering the maximum area in India | Jasmine |
Global Plant & Flower Markets
| Category | Country/Region |
|---|---|
| Leading bulbous plant-producing country | Netherlands |
| Leading bulbous plant importing country | USA |
| India is the largest producer of loose flowers in the world | True |
| “Hedera” – The number one pot plant in the global flower market | True |
| Helichrysum – 1st rank in dried ornamentals in the global flower market | True |
| Flower capital of the world | California, USA |
| Foliage capital of the world | Apopka, Florida, USA |
| Asparagus – 1st rank in cut greens in the global flower market | True |
Cut Flower Production & Exports
| Flower Type | Countries Involved in Production & Export |
|---|---|
| Carnation & Rose | Colombia & Kenya |
| Orchids | Thailand, Singapore & Malaysia |
| Anthurium | Mauritius |
Horticulture & Gardening
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Hogarth Course is also known as | Line of Beauty |
| Biggest formal garden | Vrindavan Garden, Mysore |
| “Heaven of Man” | Italian Garden |
| Stevia – “Wonder Plant” (Sweeteners of the future) | True |
| Optimum level of CO₂ enrichment for most greenhouse crops | 800 to 1200 ppm |
| Phenology refers to flowering behavior and was coined by Belgian botanist Charles Morren | 1849 |
| Chrysanthemums are photosensitive in nature, where flowering is affected by photoperiodic control | True |
| Low-temperature frost injury is found in | Rose and Gladiolus |
Books on Floriculture & Gardening
| Book Title | Author |
|---|---|
| “Beautiful Gardens” | M.S. Randhawa |
| “Garden Flowers” | Vishnu Swarup |
| “Garden Through Ages” | M.S. Randhawa |
| “Complete Gardening in India” | Hoseli Press |
| “Introductory Ornamental Horticulture” | Arora (Published by Kalyani Publishers) |
| “Rose in India” | B.P. Pal |
🌿 Floriculture Industry Data 🌿
🌍 Top Gardens in the World
| Rank | Garden Name | Location |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | The Garden of Cosmic Speculation | Scotland |
| 2 | Keukenhof Gardens | The Netherlands |
| 3 | Suan Nong Nooch | Thailand |
| 4 | Versailles | France |
| 5 | Jardim Botânico de Curitiba | Brazil |
| 6 | Butchart Gardens | Canada |
| 7 | Yuyuan Garden | China |
| 8 | Minneapolis Sculpture Garden | Minnesota, USA |
| 9 | Ryoan Ji Garden | Japan |
| 10 | Kirstenbosch Garden | Cape Town, South Africa |
| 11 | Claude Monet Garden | Giverny, France |
| 12 | Majorelle Garden | Marrakech, Morocco |
| 13 | Kenrokuen Garden | Ishikawa, Japan |
| 14 | Desert Botanical Garden | Phoenix, Arizona |
| 15 | Bagh-e-Fin | Kashan, Iran |
| 16 | Ji Chang Yuan Garden | Jiangsu, China |
| 17 | Royal Botanical Gardens | Melbourne, Australia |
| 18 | Mirabell Palace and Gardens | Salzburg, Austria |
Famous Gardens in India
| Rank | Garden Name | Location | Notable Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Lalbagh | Bangalore, Karnataka | Floral clock (free style) |
| 2 | Brindavan Garden | Mysore, Karnataka | Biggest formal garden |
| 3 | Sim’s Park | Coonoor, Tamil Nadu | – |
| 4 | The Indian Botanical Garden | Sibpur, Kolkata, West Bengal | – |
| 5 | National Botanical Garden | Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh | – |
| 6 | Rashtrapati Bhavan Garden | New Delhi | – |
| 7 | Buddha Jayanti Park | New Delhi | – |
| 8 | Mughal Garden | Pinjore, Haryana | – |
| 9 | Rose Gardens | Chandigarh, Punjab | – |
| 10 | Mandore Garden | Jodhpur, Rajasthan | – |
| 11 | Sayaji Park | Vadodara, Gujarat | Branching palm |
| 12 | Koshnara Park | New Delhi | – |
| 13 | Botanical Garden | FRI, Dehradun, Uttarakhand | – |
| 14 | Botanic Garden | Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu | – |
| 15 | Chashme Shahi | Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir | – |
| 16 | Tulip Garden | Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir | – |
🌸 National Flowers of Different Countries
| Country | National Flower | Scientific Name |
|---|---|---|
| 🇦🇺 Australia | Golden Wattle | Acacia pycnantha |
| 🇬🇧 England | Tudor Rose | Rosa |
| 🇳🇵 Nepal | Rhododendron | Rhododendron arboreum |
| 🇵🇸 Palestine | Palestinian Poppy | Anemone coronaria |
| 🇵🇰 Pakistan | Poet’s Jasmine | Jasminum officinale |
| 🇸🇦 Saudi Arabia | Noble Orchid | Cymbidium goeringii |
| 🇰🇷 South Korea | Rose of Sharon | Hibiscus syriacus |
| 🇱🇰 Sri Lanka | Water Lily | Nymphaea stellata |
| 🇦🇫 Afghanistan | Tulip | Tulipa gesneriana |
| 🇧🇩 Bangladesh | Shapla | Nymphaea pubescens |
| 🇧🇹 Bhutan | Blue Poppy | Meconopsis grandis |
| 🇰🇭 Cambodia | Rumduol | Sphaerocoryne affinis |
| 🇨🇳 China | Peony | Paeonia |
| 🇨🇱 Chile | Copihue | Lapageria rosea |
| 🇮🇳 India | Lotus | Nelumbo nucifera |
| 🇮🇷 Iran | Persian Pearl | Tulipa pulchella |
| 🇰🇪 Kashmir | Pink Rose | Rosa |
| 🇲🇻 Maldives | Pink Rose | Polyantha |
| 🇲🇾 Malaysia | Chinese Hibiscus | Hibiscus rosa-sinensis |
| 🇸🇬 Singapore | Orchid | Orchidaceae |
| 🇿🇦 South Africa | Protea | Protea cynaroides |
🌻 Flowers for Different Purposes
| Name | Purpose |
|---|---|
| 🌹 Rose | Women’s love |
| 🌿 Carnation (White) | Love |
| 🌼 French Marigold | Jealousy/Sorrow |
| 🌻 African Marigold | Thoughts |
| 🌺 Pansy | Vulgar mind |
| 🌱 Narcissus | Self-esteem |
| 🌼 Daffodil | Regards |
| 🌷 Amaryllis | Pride |
| 🌸 Iris | Message |
| 🌹 Lily | Purity |
| 💐 Stock | Luxury |
| 🌺 Sweet Pea | Departure |
🌱 Plants Originated in India
🌿 Flowering Ornamentals
| Name | Botanical Name |
|---|---|
| Orchids | Cymbidium, Dendrobium |
| Rhododendron | Rhododendron arboreum |
| Musk Rose | Rosa moschata |
| Pink Poppy | Papaver rhoeas |
| Tulip | Tulipa gesneriana |
| Gloriosa Lily | Gloriosa superba |
| Tyda | Gomphrena globosa |
| Guzmania | Guzmania lingulata |
| Lady’s Slipper | Paphiopedilum insigne |
| Sita Ashoka | Saraca indica |
🌳 Trees
| Name | Botanical Name |
|---|---|
| Pipal | Ficus religiosa |
| Banyan | Ficus benghalensis |
| Neem | Azadirachta indica |
| Kadam | Neuclea cadamba |
| Arjun Tree | Terminalia arjuna |
| Pride of India | Lagerstroemia speciosa |
🌿 Shrubs
| Name | Botanical Name |
|---|---|
| Bela | Jasminum sambac |
| Pilu Chameli | Jasminum humile |
| Kikam | Acorus calamus |
🌼 Annual Plants and Their Categories
| Category | Sowing Time | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Summer Annuals | Feb-Mar | Zinnia, Sunflower, Cosmos, Coreopsis |
| Rainy Annuals | Jun-Jul | Balsam, Amaranthus, Gomphrena |
| Winter Annuals | Sep-Oct | Alyssum, Carnation, Aster, Petunia |
💐 For Special Purposes:
- Hanging Basket: Daisy, Nasturtium, Verbena
- Rock Garden: Ice Plant, Verbena, Gamolepis
- Screening Purpose: Hollyhock, Sweet Pea
- Pots: Carnation, Petunia, Aster
🌍 Leading Flower Seed Production States in India
| Rank | State | Contribution (%) |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Punjab | 50% |
| 2 | Haryana | – |
| 3 | Himachal Pradesh | – |
🌻 Interesting Facts About Flower Seeds
- Area under Seed Production: 800 hectares in India
- Max Seeds/Gram: Petunia, Portulaca (10,000+)
- Min Seeds/Gram: Sweet Pea, Sunflower (15-20)
- Bold Seeds: Hollyhock, Lupin, Morning Glory
Complete Guide to Annual Flowering Plants: Summer, Rainy, and Winter Season Annuals
Summer & Rainy Season Annual Flowers
These vibrant annuals thrive in warm and humid conditions, making them perfect for summer and monsoon gardens.
| Sr. No. | Flower Crop | Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Amaranthus | Love Lies Bleeding | Amaranthus caudatus | Amaranthaceae | Prefers sunny locations |
| 2 | Balsam | – | Impatiens balsamina | Balsaminaceae | – |
| 3 | Cock’s Comb | – | Celosia spp. | Amaranthaceae | – |
| 4 | Gaillardia | Blanket Flower | Gaillardia pulchella | Compositae | Indian Chief Red variety |
| 5 | Gomphrena | Globe Amaranth | Gomphrena globosa | Amaranthaceae | – |
| 6 | Kochia | Summer Cypress, Burning Bush | Kochia scoparia var. tricophylla | Chenopodiaceae | Sunny location, does not produce seeds |
| 7 | Portulaca | Sunplant | Portulaca grandiflora | Portulaceae | Dwarf variety |
| 8 | Sunflower | – | Helianthus annuus | Compositae | Sultan’s Autumn Beauty variety |
| 9 | Tithonia | Mexican Sunflower | Tithonia speciosa | Compositae | Tall variety |
| 10 | Zinnia | – | Zinnia elegans | Compositae | Riverside Beauty, Firecracker, Princess varieties |
Winter Season Annual Flowers
Winter annuals thrive in cool climates and add vibrant colors to gardens during the colder months.
| Sr. No. | Flower Crop | Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Acroclinum | Paper Flower | Acroclinum roseum | Compositae | Pink, White, Everlasting Flower |
| 2 | Ageratum | Floss Flower | Ageratum houstonianum | Compositae | Blue flowers |
| 3 | Anchusa | – | Anchusa capensis | Compositae | Blue flowers |
| 4 | Chrysanthemum | Crown Daisy, Garland Chrysanthemum | Chrysanthemum coronarium | Compositae | White flowers |
| 5 | Antirrhinum | Snap Dragon, Dog Flower, Bunny Rabbit | Antirrhinum majus | Scrophulariaceae | F1 Hybrid, Rocket variety |
Floriculture & Post-Harvest Technology: Important Annuals for Horticulture
These ornamental flowers are essential for floriculture and landscaping, suitable for cut flowers and decorations.
| Sr. No. | Flower Crop | Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Arctotis | African Daisy | Arctotis strechadifolia | Compositae | – |
| 2 | Aster | – | Callistephus chinensis | Compositae | Ostrich Feather, Giant Perfection varieties |
| 3 | Bells of Ireland | – | Molucella laevis | Lamiaceae (Labiateae) | – |
| 4 | Brachycome | Swan River Daisy | Brachycome iberidifolia | Compositae | Dwarf, White flowers |
| 5 | Calendula | Pot Marigold | Calendula officinalis | Compositae | Yellow flowers |
| 6 | California Poppy | – | Eschscholzia californica | Papaveraceae | – |
| 7 | Candy Tuft | Hyacinth Flower | Iberis spp. | Cruciferae | White, Pink (Dwarf) |
| 8 | Cineraria | Shade Loving Plant | Senecio cruentus | Compositae | – |
| 9 | Clarkia | – | Clarkia elegans | Onagraceae | Semi-shade conditions |
| 10 | Clianthus | Parrot’s Bill | Clianthus dampieri | Leguminosae | – |
Popular Annual Flowers for Landscaping & Gardening
A selection of vibrant and easy-to-grow annuals that enhance home gardens, parks, and commercial landscapes.
| Flower | Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Best Features |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cosmos | – | Cosmos bipinnatus | Compositae | Short day plant, Masterpiece variety |
| Dahlia | – | Dahlia variabilis | Compositae | Arabian Night variety |
| Daisy | English Daisy | Bellis perennis | Compositae | Dwarf variety |
| Gazania | – | Gazania splendens | Compositae | Dwarf variety |
| Pansy | – | Viola wittrockiana | Violaceae | Dwarf variety |
| Petunia | – | Petunia hybrida | Solanaceae | “King of Annual Flowers” |
| Rudbeckia | Cone Flower | Rudbeckia bicolor | Compositae | – |
| Sweet Pea | – | Lathyrus odoratus | Leguminosae | Little Sweetheart variety |
| Wallflower | – | Cheiranthus cheiri | Cruciferae | Medium-sized, Yellow flowers |
Hedge Plants (Protective & Ornamental)
| Type | Height | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Tall Protective Hedges | 1-3 meters | Inga dulcis, Karonda, Bougainvillea, Acacia farnesiana |
| Dwarf Protective Hedges | Up to 1 meter | Euphorbia bojeri, Opuntia spp., Agave spp., Pedilanthus spp. |
| Tall Ornamental Hedges | 1-3 meters | Mehendi, Duranta, Casuarina, Hibiscus, Hamelia patens, Thevetia peruviana, Murraya panniculata |
| Dwarf Ornamental Hedges | Up to 1 meter | Acalypha, Clerodendrum, Thunbergia, Lamano spp. |
Edge Plants (Low-Growing Border Plants)
| Plant Name | Characteristics |
|---|---|
| Alternanthera | Compact & colorful |
| Justicia | Flowering border plant |
| Eupatorium | Hardy & easy to maintain |
| Iresine lindenii | Vivid red foliage |
| Sunrose (Helianthemum) | Low-growing ground cover |
Topiary Plants (Shaping & Sculpting Shrubs)
| Plant Name | Features |
|---|---|
| Duranta plumeri | Evergreen, dense foliage |
| Sesbania egyptica | Fast-growing, columnar habit |
| Inga dulcis | Ideal for spiral topiary |
| Acacia modesta | Small leaves, easy to trim |
| Murraya panniculata | Hardy, tolerates frequent pruning |
🔹 World’s Tallest Topiary: Samban-Lei Sekpil (Manipur, India) – 18.6 meters
Shrubs (Classifications & Examples)
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Foliage Shrubs | Acalypha tricolor, Nandina domestica, Codiaeum variegatum, Manilkara variegata |
| Flower & Foliage Shrubs | Bougainvillea, Buddleia asiatica, Buddleia madagascariensis, Hamelia patens |
| Fragrant Flower Shrubs | Cestrum nocturnum, Cestrum diurnum, Jasminum sambac, Murraya panniculata |
| Specimen Shrubs | Bougainvillea, Hibiscus, Hamelia patens, Thevetia peruviana |
Propagation Methods for Shrubs
| Method | Examples |
|---|---|
| Seed Propagation | Stenolobium stans, Thevetia peruviana, Calliandra spp., Caesalpinia pulcherrima |
| Cutting Propagation | Hibiscus, Achania malvaviscus, Jasminum sambac, Bougainvillea, Cestrum nocturnum |
| Layering Propagation | Bougainvillea, Ixora spp., Jasminum sambac, Jasminum multiflorum |
Planting Details & Spacing
| Shrub Type | Spacing | Best Planting Time |
|---|---|---|
| Tall Shrubs | 150-180 cm | Rainy season, Feb-March |
| Medium Shrubs | 120-150 cm | Rainy season, Feb-March |
| Dwarf Shrubs | 90-120 cm | Rainy season, Feb-March |
🌱 Planting Methods:
✅ Triangular System
✅ Double Row Planting
Common Shrubs & Their Features
🌿 Dwarf Shrubs
| Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Flower Color |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mogra | Jasminum sambac | Oleaceae | White |
| Weeping Merry | Russelia juncea | Scrophulariaceae | Red |
| Chitra | Plumbago auriculata | Plumbaginaceae | Blue |
| Barleria | Barleria cristata | Acanthaceae | Violet-Blue |
| Galphimia | Galphimia gracilis | Malpighiaceae | Yellow |
🌺 Medium Shrubs
| Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Flower Color |
|---|---|---|---|
| Night Queen | Cestrum nocturnum | Solanaceae | Creamish White |
| Day King | Cestrum diurnum | Solanaceae | White |
| Kund | Jasminum multiflorum | Oleaceae | White |
| Lantana | Lantana camara | Verbenaceae | White, Red, Yellow |
| Mussaenda | Mussaenda luteola | Rubiaceae | Yellow |
🌟 Tall & Specimen Shrubs
| Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Flower Color |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tecoma | Tecoma capensis | Bignoniaceae | Red, Yellow |
| Peacock Flower | Caesalpinia pulcherrima | Leguminaceae | Red, Yellow |
| Duranta | Duranta plumeri | Verbenaceae | Blue |
| Poinsettia | Poinsettia pulcherrima | Euphorbiaceae | Red |
| Gardenia | Gardenia jasminoides | Rubiaceae | White |
Climbers: Complete Guide with Botanical Names, Flowering Time & More
| Sr. No. | Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Flower Colour | Flowering Time |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Adenocalymma | Adenocalymma alliaceum | Bignoniaceae | Lavender | November |
| 2 | Coralvine / Lover’s Chain | Antigonon leptopus | Polygonaceae | Red | September – November |
| 3 | Duck Flower | Aristolochia grandiflora | Aristolochiaceae | White | September |
| 4 | Bauhinia | Bauhinia vahli | Leguminosae | White | April – May |
| 5 | Nepal Trumpet Creeper | Beaumontia grandiflora | Apocynaceae | White | March |
| 6 | Benisteria | Benisteria larvifolia | Malpighiaceae | Yellow | – |
| 7 | Vernonia | Vernonia eleganifolia | Compositae | – | – |
| 8 | Bignonia | Bignonia magnifica | Bignoniaceae | Violet | October – November |
| 9 | Trumpet Climber | Bignonia gracilis | Bignoniaceae | Yellow | March – April |
| 10 | Virgin Flower | Clematis panniculata | Ranunculaceae | White | July – August |
| 11 | Grape Flower Vine | Wisteria sinensis | Leguminosae | White | March |
| 12 | Clerodendron | Clerodendron splendens | Verbenaceae | Deep Red | December – March |
| 13 | Butterfly Pea | Clitoria ternatea | Leguminosae | Blue | Semi-shade situation |
| 14 | Indian Loy | Ficus repens | Moraceae | – | – |
| 15 | Madhavi Latha | Hiptage bengalensis | Malpighiaceae | White | February – March |
| 16 | Railway Creeper | Ipomoea palmata | Convolvulaceae | Purple | Round the year |
| 17 | Chameli (Jasminum) | Jasminum grandiflorum | Oleaceae | White | June – November |
| 18 | Spanish Jasmine | Jasminum officinale | Oleaceae | White | June – September |
| 19 | Japanese Honeysuckle | Lonicera japonica | Caprifoliaceae | White | May – June |
| 20 | Watch Tower | Phlogacanthus sp. | Acanthaceae | Purple | – |
| 21 | Purple Wreath | Petrea volubilis | Bignoniaceae | Blue | April – May |
| 22 | Golden Shower | Pyrostegia venusta | Bignoniaceae | Orange | February – March |
| 23 | Bridal Bouquet | Poranopsis paniculata | Convolvulaceae | White | – |
| 24 | Blue Potato Vine | Solanum seaforthianum | Solanaceae | – | – |
| 25 | Rangoon Creeper (Jhoomka Bel) | Quisqualis indica | Combretaceae | Pinkish | Throughout the year |
| 26 | Sky Flower | Thunbergia grandiflora | Acanthaceae | Blue | February – March |
| 27 | Star Jasmine | Trachelospermum jasminoides | Oleaceae | White | May – September |
| 28 | Derris | Derris scandens | Papilionaceae | Light Rose | May – September |
| 29 | Morning Glory | Ipomoea cairica | Convolvulaceae | Purple-Red | Throughout the year |
| 30 | Cypress Vine | Ipomoea quamoclit | Convolvulaceae | Red | October |
| 31 | Garuda Vine | Mina lobata | Convolvulaceae | Orange, Yellow | – |
| 32 | Honeysuckle | Passiflora laurifolia | Passifloraceae | White | April – August |
| 33 | Creeping Tuberose | Zephyranthes candida | Asclepiadaceae | White | April – August |
Climbers by Growth Mechanism
| Category | Examples |
|---|---|
| Climbers with Tendrils | Antigonon leptopus, Bignonia gracilis, Pyrostegia venusta, Clematis panniculata |
| Thorny Climbers | Bougainvillea, Climbing Rose |
| Climbers with Rootlets | Campsis grandiflora, Ficus repens |
| Climbers with Sticky Substances | Ficus repens |
Best Climbers for Specific Uses
| Purpose | Recommended Climbers |
|---|---|
| For Sunny Areas | Pyrostegia venusta, Quisqualis indica, Antigonon leptopus, Adenocalymma alliaceum, Bougainvillea, Campsis grandiflora |
| For Partial Shade | Clerodendron splendens, Petrea volubilis, Lonicera japonica, Trachalospermum jasminoides |
| Climbers Suitable for Pots | Bougainvillea, Clitoria ternatea |
| Ideal for Hedges | Clerodendron inerme, Bougainvillea |
| Indoor Decoration | Pothos, Monstera deliciosa, Philodendron spp., Asparagus spp. |
| Best for Screening | Vernonia eleganifolia, Pyrostegia venusta |
| Best Annual Climbers | Sweet Pea, Ipomoea lobata, Clitoria ternatea |
Comprehensive Guide to Ornamental Plants, Cacti, Succulents, Palms & Ground Covers
🌿 Flowering Plants & Foliage Plants
1. Bulbous Plants
| Sr. No. | Name | Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Moraea | – | Moraea iridiodes | Iridaceae | – |
| 2 | Narcissus | Daffodils | Narcissus spp. | Amaryllidaceae | Nargis |
| 3 | Tuberose | Rajnigandha | Polianthes tuberosa | Amaryllidaceae | Pearls |
| 4 | Zephyr lily | – | Zephyranthes spp. | Amaryllidaceae | – |
| 5 | Eucharis | – | Eucharis amazonica | Amaryllidaceae | – |
| 6 | Hippeastrum | Night star lily | Hippeastrum spp. | Amaryllidaceae | – |
| 7 | Calla Lily | – | Zantedeschia spp. | Araceae | – |
| 7 | Cyclamen (Temperate) | – | Cyclamen persicum | Primulaceae | – |
| 8 | Watsonia | – | Watsonia spp. | Iridaceae | – |
| 9 | Oxalis | – | Oxalis spp. | Oxalidaceae | – |
| 10 | Nerine | – | Nerine sarniensis | Amaryllidaceae | – |
| 11 | Gloxinia | – | Gloxinia speciosa | Gesneriaceae | – |
2. Indoor & Foliage Plants
| Sr. No. | Name | Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Aglaonema | – | Aglaonema spp. | Araceae | – |
| 2 | Alocasia | – | Alocasia spp. | Araceae | – |
| 3 | Anthurium | – | Anthurium spp. | Araceae | – |
| 4 | Aphelandra | – | Aphelandra auriantiaca | Acanthaceae | – |
| 5 | Araucaria | – | Araucaria spp. | Araucariaceae | – |
| 6 | Asparagus | – | Asparagus spp. | Asparagaceae | – |
| 7 | Aspidistra | – | Aspidistra elatior | Asparagaceae | – |
| 8 | Begonia | – | Begonia spp. | Begoniaceae | – |
| 9 | Ribbon Plant | – | Chlorophytum comosum variegata | Asparagaceae | – |
| 10 | Spider Plant | – | Chlorophytum comosum vittatum | Asparagaceae | – |
| 11 | Shrimp Plant | – | Beloperone guttata | Acanthaceae | – |
| 12 | Caladium | – | Caladium hortulanum | Araceae | – |
🌵 Cacti & Succulents
3. Cactus Plants
| Sr. No. | Name | Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Opuntia | Prickly Pear | Opuntia cylindrica | Cactaceae | – |
| 2 | Rat’s Tail | – | Aprocactus flagelliformis | Cactaceae | Used for fencing |
| 3 | Chin Cactus | – | Gymnocalycium spp. | Cactaceae | – |
| 4 | Bird’s Nest Cactus | – | Mammillaria spp. | Cactaceae | – |
| 5 | Sen Onion | – | Bowea volubilis | Cactaceae | – |
4. Succulents
| Sr. No. | Name | Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Agave | Century Plant | Agave americana | Asparagaceae | – |
| 2 | Aloe | Aloe Vera | Aloe vera | Asparagaceae | – |
| 3 | Euphorbia | Mother-in-law’s Tongue | Euphorbia spp. | Euphorbiaceae | – |
| 4 | Lithops | Flowering Stone | Lithops spp. | Aizoaceae | – |
| 5 | Yucca | Spanish Dagger | Yucca gloriosa | Asparagaceae | – |
| 6 | Portulaca | Elephant Bush | Portulacaria afra | Crassulaceae | – |
🌴 Palms
| Sr. No. | Common Name | Botanical Name | Family | Light | Water | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chinese Palm | Livistona rotundifolia | Arecaceae | Bright, indirect | Moderate | Slow-growing, good indoor plant |
| 2 | Fishtail Palm | Caryota urens | Arecaceae | Filtered shade | Moderate to moist | Not suitable for small spaces |
| 3 | Royal Palm | Roystonea regia | Arecaceae | Full sun | Regular | Majestic, fast-growing |
| 4 | Bottle Palm | Hyophorbe lagencaulis | Arecaceae | Full sun to partial shade | Moderate | Drought-tolerant |
| 5 | Kentia Palm | Kentia belmoreana | Arecaceae | Low light | Moderate | Popular indoor palm |
| 6 | Good Luck Palm | Chamaedorea elegans | Arecaceae | Filtered shade | Moist | Ideal for terrariums |
| 7 | Lady Palm | Rhapis excelsa | Arecaceae | Low light | Moderate | Clumping palm |
| 8 | Pygmy Date Palm | Phoenix roebelenii | Arecaceae | Full sun | Moderate | Popular indoor palm |
| 9 | Sago Palm | Cycas revoluta | Cycadaceae | Full sun to partial shade | Moderate | Not a true palm |
| 10 | Date Palm | Phoenix dactylifera | Arecaceae | Full sun | Regular | Needs hot summers |
🌱 Ground Covers & Ornamental Foliage
5. Green Color Foliage
| Sr. No. | Name | Botanical Name | Light | Water | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Creeping Scarlett Bush Clover | Trifolium repens ‘Atropurpureum’ | Full sun to part shade | Moderate | Low-maintenance |
| 2 | Joseph’s Coat | Alternanthera ficoidea | Full sun | Moderate | Vibrant foliage |
| 3 | Mexican Heather | Cuphea hyssopifolia | Full sun to part shade | Moderate | Attracts pollinators |
6. Red Color Foliage
| Sr. No. | Name | Botanical Name | Light | Water | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Bloodleaf Iresine | Iresine herbstii | Full sun to part shade | Moderate | Colorful foliage |
| 2 | Shamrock | Oxalis spp. | Part shade to full shade | Moderate | Some varieties are invasive |
| 3 | Morning Glory | Ipomea tricolor | Full sun | Moderate | Fast-growing vine |
7. Golden Color Foliage
| Sr. No. | Name | Botanical Name | Light | Water | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Golden Duranta | Duranta repens ‘Gold Mound’ | Full sun | Moderate | Bushy growth, attracts butterflies |
| 2 | Cypress Vine | Ipomea quamoclit | Full sun | Moderate | Delicate vine with trumpet flowers |
Lawn Care and Gardening: A Complete Guide
Selection of Grasses
Choosing the right grass is essential for a lush lawn. Below are common grasses with their characteristics:
| Sr. No. | Name | Botanical Name | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Bermuda Grass | Cynodon dactylon | Drought-tolerant, spreads quickly |
| 2 | Korean Grass | Zoysia japonica | Dense, heat-tolerant, slower growth |
| 3 | Manila Grass | Zoysia matrella | Similar to Korean grass, slightly more shade-tolerant |
| 4 | Korean Velvet Grass | Zoysia tenuifolia | Fine-textured, good for putting greens |
| 5 | Carpet Grass | Axonopus affinis | Shade-tolerant, can be invasive |
Popular Gardening Styles
Gardening styles vary based on symmetry, layout, and plant selection.
| Style | Plan | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Formal | Symmetrical | Persian Gardens, Mughal Gardens |
| Informal | Asymmetrical | Japanese Gardens |
| Free Style | Mix of both | Rose Garden of Ludhiana, English Garden, Lal Bagh |
Elements & Principles of Garden Design
Designing a garden involves understanding both elements and principles.
Elements of Art in Garden Design
| Element | Definition | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Color | Hue, saturation, brightness | Primary: Red, blue, yellow; Secondary: Orange, green, violet |
| Line | Direction, length, and thickness | Bed arrangement, pathways |
| Form | Shape, size, and mass | Upright, oval, columnar, spreading, weeping plants |
| Texture | Surface quality | Rough, smooth, fine, coarse |
| Scale | Size of objects in relation to surroundings | Large trees vs. small shrubs |
Principles of Garden Design
| Principle | Definition | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Unity | Coherence and harmony | Mass planting, repetition |
| Balance | Equilibrium (symmetrical/asymmetrical) | Different plant arrangements |
| Transition | Gradual change | Varying textures, forms, or sizes |
| Proportion | Size relationships | Large trees vs. small shrubs |
| Rhythm | Repetition of elements | Repeating plant patterns, colors, or textures |
| Focalization | Drawing attention to a feature | Placing focal points in garden pathways |
| Repetition | Using elements multiple times | Identical plants, shapes, lines, textures |
| Simplicity | Minimalism in design | Avoiding unnecessary elements |
Famous Garden Types & Features
Different cultures have contributed to distinct garden designs.
| Category | Subcategory | Features/Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Mughal Gardens | Symbolism | Cypress: Immortality, Flowering trees: Renewal of life, Kachnar (B. alba): Youth and life |
| Japanese Gardens | “Nature in Miniature” | Peaceful settings |
| Hill Gardens | Tsukiyama sansui | Includes trees, ornamental water, lanterns, bridges |
| Flat Gardens | Hiraniwa | Example: Roshnara Park, Budha Jayanti Park |
| Sand Gardens | Ryoanji | Example: Kyoto, Japan |
| English Gardens | Herbaceous border discovered by William Robinson | Features lawns, rockeries, Royal Botanical Garden at Kew (1757) |
| Persian Gardens | Example | Charbagh |
| Sunken Gardens | Example | Rashtrapati Garden |
Flower Arrangement Styles
Floral arrangements differ based on cultural and artistic preferences.
Japanese Style (Ikebana)
Minimalist, symbolic, and spiritual designs:
- Moribana: Natural arrangement with piled flowers in dwarf vases.
- Jiyubana: Free-form flower arrangement.
- Morimona: Includes fruits, vegetables, and flowers.
- Nagiere: Uses tall vases.
- Zeneika: Straight materials with uneven height.
- Zeneibana: Sculptures using wood, stone, and rocks.
Western Style
Emphasis on mass arrangements where flowers are 1.5 times taller than the vase.
Japanese Ikebana Basic Lines
- Shin (Heaven)
- Soe (Man)
- Hikaie (Earth)
- Jushi (Fillers)
Bonsai: The Art of Miniature Trees
Bonsai is a Japanese art of growing miniature trees that mimic full-sized ones.
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Definition | Art of extreme dwarfing (tray planting) |
| Origin | China (Penging) |
| Types | Mame Bonsai (Miniature Bonsai: Up to 10 cm height) |
Oil Extraction & Perfume Making
Essential oils are extracted from flowers for perfume production.
Flower Oils & Extraction Yields
| Flower | Scientific Name | Oil Yield (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Rose | Rosa damascena | 0.05% |
| Rosa bourboniana | 0.04% | |
| Rosa centifolia | 0.01% | |
| Rosa moschata | 0.04% | |
| Jasmine | Jasminum auriculatum | 0.29% (highest yield) |
| Jasminum grandiflorum | 0.25-0.30% | |
| Jasminum sambac | 0.04% | |
| Tuberose | Single: Shringar, Rajat Rekha | |
| Double: Suvasini, Swarna Rekha |
Top Perfume-Producing Countries
| Perfume Type | Largest Producer |
|---|---|
| Rose Perfume | Bulgaria |
| Jasmine Perfume | Egypt |
| Tuberose Perfume | France |
| Carnation Perfume | France |
Concrete (Non-Purified Essential Oil)
- Obtained via solvent extraction.
- Contains 45-55% absolute.
Sources of Concrete:
- Flowers: Rose, Jasmine, Tuberose, Jonquil, Mimosa, Boronia.
- Other Plants: Lavender, Lavandin, Geranium, Clary Sage, Violet Leaves, Oak Moss.
Complete Guide to Roses (Rosa spp.) – Cultivation, Varieties, and Breeding
1. Botanical Classification & Origin
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Botanical Name | Rosa spp. |
| Family | Rosaceae |
| Origin | India (Northern Hemisphere) |
| Symbolism | Queen of flowers, National flower of England, Iran, UK. Symbol of beauty and love. |
2. Best Time for Planting and Propagation
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Planting Time | End of September to mid-October |
| Spacing | Hybrid Tea Roses: 75 cm; Floribunda: 60 cm |
| Propagation Method | T-budding |
| Best Time for Budding | November to February |
3. Common Rootstocks for Rose Cultivation
| Rootstock Name | Common Regions |
|---|---|
| Rosa multiflora (Edward Rose) | Western India |
| Rosa indica var. odorata | Northern India |
| Rosa canina (Dog Rose) | General use |
| Rosa gallica (French Rose) | General use |
| Rosa centifolia (Cabbage Rose) | General use |
| Rosa moschata (Musk Rose) | General use |
| Rosa pendulina, Rosa bourboniana | Thornless varieties |
4. Rose Seeds and Fruit (Rose Hip)
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Fruit Type | Berry-type, rich source of Vitamin C |
| Seed Type | Achenes |
5. Famous Rose Breeders & Contributions
| Breeder Name | Notable Contribution |
|---|---|
| B.K. Roy Choudhary | First Indian rose breeder, developed Dr. S.D. Mukherjee (1935) |
| B.S. Bhattacharjee | “Father of Rose Breeding,” developed Ramkrishnadev |
| Dr. B.P. Pal | Developed Rose Sherbat (first Indian rose variety) |
6. Rose Varieties for Different Purposes
| Category | Varieties |
|---|---|
| Exhibition Roses | Christian Dior, Eiffel Tower, Garden Party, Mischief, Pusa Sonia, Show Girl, First Prize, Rajkumar, Raktagandha |
| Scented Roses | Lafrance, Seventh Heaven, Pusa Sugandha, The Doctor, Blue Moon, General M. Arthur |
| Cut Flower Roses | Gladiator, Happiness, Super Star, Sonia, Mercedes, Arjun, Raktagandha, Sindhoor |
| Floribundas | Hybrid Tea x Dwarf Polyanthas (Rodhatte – First variety by Poulsen, 1912) |
| Polyantha Roses | La Paquerette (First variety), Swati Rashmi |
| Climbers | Sympathy, Delhi White Pearl, Breath of Life, Golden Shower, Swan Lake, Delhi Pink Pearl |
| Ramblers | American Pillar, Excelsa, Albertine |
| Miniature Roses | Desert Charm, Red Flush, Delhi Scarlet, Summerbutter, Party Girl, Puppy Love, Snow Carpet, Yellow Doll, Cinderella, Delhi Starlet |
7. Specialized Rose Breeding & Mutants
| Category | Varieties |
|---|---|
| Mutant Roses | Abhisarika (Kiss of Fire mutant), Priya (multicolored mutant), Pusa Christina (Christian Dior mutant), Madhosh (Gulzar mutant), Paradise (Garden display mutant) |
| IARI Rose Varieties | Mohini (Hypertriploid with chocolate brown color), Mrinalini (Featured on a postage stamp), Pusa Mansaj, Pusa Mohit (Thornless variety) |
8. Greenhouse Roses – Ideal Growing Conditions
| Category | Optimal Range |
|---|---|
| Day Temperature | 25°C |
| Night Temperature | 16°C |
| CO₂ Levels | 1000-3000 PPM |
| Popular Greenhouse Varieties | Grand Gala (thornless), First Red, Kiss, Konfetti, Vivaldi, Black Magic, Starlite, Frisco, Yellow River, Hollywood |
9. Key Flowering & Pruning Information
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Blooming Time After Pruning | 60-65 days |
| Wintering of Roses | Common in Western India (September-October) |
| Flowering Time After Pruning | Hybrid Tea Roses: 42 days; Floribundas: 45 days |
| Commercial Life of a Rose Plant | 8 years |
| Common Rootstock in Europe | Rosa canina |
10. Pest & Disease Management in Roses
| Category | Best Control Methods |
|---|---|
| Powdery Mildew | Controlled using Topaz |
| Shelf Life Extension | Pulsing treatment |
| Rose Disorder | Limp Neck |
11. Rose Oil Production & Gulkand Preparation
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Most Expensive Rose Product | Rose Oil |
| Gulkand Preparation | Rose petals mixed with sugar in a 1:1 ratio |
12. Noteworthy Traits & Facts About Roses
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Winter Requirement | Winter chilling is necessary for flower bud formation in Rosa damascena |
| Pigmentation in Roses | Blue pigmentation due to delphinine |
| Blue Rose Variety | Samba |
| Seed Setting in Breeding | Major issue in rose breeding |
| Thornless Rose Varieties | Suchitra, Grand Gala |
| Maiden Type Roses | Do not require pruning |
| Pest & Disease Resistance | Miniature roses are naturally resistant |
Gladiolus (Gladiolus grandifloras) Cultivation Guide – Best Practices, Varieties & Propagation
1. Botanical Classification & Origin
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Botanical Name | Gladiolus grandifloras |
| Family | Iridaceae |
| Common Name | Sword Lily |
| Origin | Africa & Asia Minor (Tetraploid), Europe (Diploid) |
| Chromosome Number | 2n = 60 (Tetraploid), 2n = 30 (Diploid) |
2. Ideal Growing Conditions
| Category | Optimal Range |
|---|---|
| Optimum Temperature | 16-30°C |
| Light Requirement | Requires open sunny conditions; longer day length improves spike quality |
| Planting Time | July to December |
| Spacing | 20-30 cm² |
3. Propagation & Corm Treatment
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Propagation Methods | Corms & Tissue Culture |
| Corm Treatment | 0.2% Bavistin |
| Dormancy Breaking Techniques | 1. Ethylene Chlorohydrine, 2. Storage at 4-5°C for 3-4 months |
| Dormant Cormels | Contain 5-10 times more ABA (Abscisic Acid) than non-dormant cormels |
4. Key Cultivation Practices
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Hilling | Important operation for Gladiolus cultivation |
| Fluoride Toxicity | Observed on leaf tips due to excessive superphosphate or rock phosphate containing hydrogen fluoride |
| Short Days Effect | Causes blind shoots if short days occur at the 1-2 leaf stage |
| Geotropism Disorder | Occurs due to improper transportation |
5. Post-Harvest Storage & Preservation
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Storage Temperature (Cut Spikes) | 1-2°C for up to 2 weeks |
| Preservative Solution | 20% sucrose + 200 PPM HỌC |
6. Disease Resistance & Special Varieties
| Category | Varieties |
|---|---|
| Resistant Variety | Dhiraj (Resistant to Fusarium Wilt) |
| Fragrant Variety | Sagar |
| Mutant Varieties | 1. Shobha, 2. Pusa Suwasini (Mutant of Wildrose) |
| New Variety | Chrysanthemum Kirti |
7. Gladiolus Varieties for Export & Commercial Cultivation
| Category | Varieties |
|---|---|
| Export Varieties | Cartago, Eurovision, Priscilla, Peter Pears, Mayur, American Beauty, Topaz |
| Other Popular Varieties | Jwala, Gazal, Priyadarshani, Melody, Suchitra, Friendship, Happy End |
| Important Varieties | Oscar, Windsong, Hunting Song, Her Majesty, Blue Sky, Agnirekha, Peter Pears, Sancerre, Prabha |
Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) Cultivation Guide – Varieties, Growing Conditions & Best Practices
1. Botanical Classification & Origin
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Botanical Name | Dianthus caryophyllus |
| Family | Caryophyllaceae |
| Origin | France |
| Day Length Requirement | Quantitatively long-day plant |
| Climate | Cool-season crop |
| Ideal Temperature Range | 10-20°C |
2. Key Cultivation Practices
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Common Practices | 1. Pinching, 2. Disbudding, 3. Staking |
| Pre-conditioning | AgNO₃ solution (Prevents ethylene injury & prolongs shelf life) |
| Storage Temperature | 2-4°C |
| Harvesting Standard | Harvest when 2-3 petals unfurl |
| Tinting | Coloring of white carnation |
| Calyx Splitting | Caused by genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors |
3. Types of Carnations & Their Varieties
A) Perpetual Type (D. caryophyllus × D. chinensis) – Propagated by Stem Cuttings
| Varieties | Winter Cheer, Britania, Joker, Mr. Thomas Lawson, Day Break, William Sim, Lipstick, Pink Dona |
B) Marguerite Type (D. chinensis × D. caryophyllus) – Propagated by Seed
C) Malmaison Type
| Varieties | Princess of Wales, Mr. Martin Smith |
D) Royal Type (Malmaison Perpetual Hybrid)
| Varieties | Royal Fancy, White Perfection, Wivel’s Field |
E) Modern Type
| Variety | Pico |
4. Pinching & Flowering Control
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Pinching (Perpetual Type) | 1st: 4th week after planting (July), 2nd: 7th week after planting (6th-7th leaf pair stage) |
| Pinching Types | 1. Single pinching (Below 6th node, early crop) 2. Pinch & Half (Steady production) 3. Double pinch (Delays flowering) |
5. Commercial Importance & Cultivation Regions
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Commercial Importance | Sim Carnations |
| Cultivation Regions (India) | Kodaikanal, Ooty, Coonoor |
Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflora) Cultivation Guide – Varieties, Growing Conditions & Best Practices
1. Botanical Classification & Origin
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Botanical Name | Dendranthema grandiflora |
| Family | Compositae |
| Origin | China |
| Common Names | Guldandi, Autumn Queen, Glory of East, Queen of East |
| National Symbol | National Flower of Japan, Symbol of Royalty in Japan |
| Plant Type | Perennial |
2. Flower Structure & Blooming Period
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Florets | Disc Florets (Center), Ray Florets (Outer) |
| Day Length Requirement | Short Day Plant |
| Blooming Period | September-October |
3. Propagation & Growth Management
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Propagation | By root suckers or terminal cuttings |
| Pinching | Encourages side branches for cut flowers |
| Disbudding | Encourages single crown branch for standard flowers |
| Preferred Cut Flower Colors | Yellow, White |
| Avoid Urea | Causes phytotoxicity |
| Growth Regulators | Use of Alar/Phosphon for better bloom size and dwarf plants |
| Auxiliary Buds | Produce crown buds |
| Pinching (Stopping) | Important for cascade formation in Japanese-style cultivation |
4. Chrysanthemum Varieties
A) Large Flowered Varieties
| Varieties | Sonar Bangla, Redwest Field, Cresta, City Beauty, Day Dream, Peach Blossom, Sweet Heart, Regalia, Green Sensation, Rupasi Bangla, Mahatma Gandhi, Indra, Kirti, Kasturba Gandhi |
B) Small Flowered Varieties
| Varieties | Gul-a-Sahir, Birbal Sahni, King Fisher, Golden Dust, Manbhavan, Anokha, Red Star, Stella, Sharad Kumar |
C) Off-Season Blooming Varieties
| Varieties | Haldi Ghati, Himanshu (April-July), Jwala, Maghi (Feb-March), Meghdoot (July-August) |
D) Export Varieties
| Standard Type | Dignity, Wild Fire, Detroit News |
| Spray Type | Parliament, Dazzler, Florida Marble |
| Pot Mums | Fantasy, Albert, Mandarin, Alpine |
E) International Varieties
| Standard Type | Kokovarouri (Yellow) |
| Spray Type | Nanako (Yellow) |
5. Special Cultivation Practices
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Harvesting Period | July-September |
| Special Culture | Sen Rin Tsukisi (Japanese technique for growing 1000 blooms) |
| Storage Temperature | 2.5°C for long holding |
| Disbudding Agent | Qxathin |
| Suitable Greenhouse Type | Gable-type (Ideal for hilly areas) |
6. Nutrient Deficiencies & Biotechnology Applications
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Petal Burn | Caused by Boron deficiency |
| Biotechnology Usage | Color of Money Maker cultivar changed from pink to white |
Marigold (Rose of Indies) Cultivation Guide – Varieties, Growing Conditions & Best Practices
1. Botanical Classification & Origin
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Botanical Name | African Marigold (Tagetes erecta, 2n=24) French Marigold (Tagetes patula, 2n=48) |
| Family | Compositae |
| Native Region | Mexico |
| Plant Type | Herbaceous |
2. Climatic Requirements & Growth Conditions
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Optimum Temperature | 18-30°C |
| Seed Rate | 1-1.5 kg/hectare |
| Planting Time | Seedlings are ready for transplanting one month after sowing |
| Pinching Practice | Beneficial for rainy-season crops to prevent water logging |
3. Marigold Varieties
A) African Marigold Varieties (Tagetes erecta)
| Varieties | Cracker Jack, Climax, Golden Age, Crown of Gold, Chrysanthemum Charm, Star Gold, Pusa Narangi Genda, Pusa Basanti Genda |
B) French Marigold Varieties (Tagetes patula)
| Varieties | Rusty Red, Butterscotch, Valencia |
C) Triploid Variety
| Variety | Nugget |
D) Notable Breeding Contributions
| Important Breeder | S.P.S. Raghava (Associated with Marigold Research) |
| Notable Open-Pollinated Variety | Pusa Basanti |
4. Pollination & Reproductive Biology
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Male Sterility | Due to female character in African Marigold |
| Self-Incompatibility | Protandry type |
5. Special Uses & Cultural Significance
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Not Used in Gajra | Marigold flowers are not used in Gajra (traditional flower garland) |
Orchid (Orchidaceae) Cultivation Guide – Types, Propagation & Commercial Production
1. Botanical Classification & Origin
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Family | Orchidaceae |
| Origin | India |
2. Types of Orchids Based on Growth Habit
| Category | Examples |
|---|---|
| Epiphytes (Grow on trees, absorb moisture from air) | Dendrobium, Vanda, Bulbophyllum |
| Lithophytes (Terrestrial) (Grow on rocks, require minimal soil) | Cymbidium |
3. Plant Morphology – Growth Patterns
| Category | Examples |
|---|---|
| Monopodial (Single upward-growing stem) | Vanda, Vanilla, Renanthera |
| Sympodial (Multiple lateral growths) | Cattleya, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Bulbophyllum |
4. Propagation Methods
| Method | Applicable Genera |
|---|---|
| Division | Cattleya, Cymbidium, Dendrobium |
| Cutting | Vanda |
| Tissue Culture (Commercial Propagation) | Widely used |
5. Commercial Production & Leading Growers
| Category | Largest Producer |
|---|---|
| Temperate Orchids (Cymbidium) | Netherlands |
| Tropical Orchids (Dendrobium) | Thailand |
| Leading Exporter | Malaysia |
6. Flower & Seed Structure
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Flower Structure | 3 sepals + 3 petals (Tepals) |
| Gynoecium Structure | Called the column |
| Seed Type | Endosperm absent (Exalbuminous) |
| Fruit Type | Capsule |
7. Growing Conditions & Cultural Practices
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Light Requirement | 2000-6000 °F |
| Potting Media | Coal and bark |
| Repotting Frequency | Every year |
| Tissue Culture Discovery | First discovered by Morel |
| Special Orchid Type | Jewel Orchid (Valued for its beautiful leaves) |
8. Notable Contributors to Orchid Research
| Researcher | Contributions |
|---|---|
| Dr. Foya Singh | Orchid studies |
| Dr. Abraham | Orchid breeding & propagation |
9. Ornamental & Commercial Uses
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Decorative Use | Cattleya orchids used for hair decoration in Hawaii |
Jasmine Cultivation Guide
1. Botanical Classification & Growth Conditions
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Climate | Grown in tropical climates |
| Major Cultivation Area | India (Largest area under floriculture) |
| Propagation Method | Semi-hardwood cuttings |
| Extraction Method | Fully open flowers are plucked for jasmine concentrate |
2. Important Species of Jasminum
| Species | Common Names |
|---|---|
| Jasminum sambac | Arabian Jasmine, Tuscan Jasmine, Bela, Mogra, Mallige |
| Jasminum grandiflorum | Royal/Spanish Jasmine, Mallai, Pitchi |
| Jasminum auriculatum | Jui, Mullai |
| Jasminum multiflorum | Kakada, Kund (Non-scented, resistant variety) |
| Jasminum arborescence | Tree Jasmine, Muta, Bela |
| Jasminum calophyllum | Pandal malli |
| Jasminum flexile | Climbing Jasmine |
| Jasminum humile | Yellow Jasmine |
3. Notable Varieties
| Species | Popular Varieties |
|---|---|
| J. sambac | Motia, Khoya |
| J. grandiflorum | CO-1 Pitchi |
| J. auriculatum | CO-1 Mullai, Single/Double Mogra, Rai Japanese |
| J. multiflorum | Resistant, non-scented variety |
4. Flowering & Pruning Schedule
| Species | Flowering Time | Pruning Time |
|---|---|---|
| J. sambac | March-September | October end (every 6 months) |
| J. grandiflorum | Throughout the year | Mid-December |
| J. auriculatum | November-May | December-January |
5. Notable Contributors & Industry Insights
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Notable Contributor | S. Muthu Swami (Associated with Jasmine research) |
| Oil Extraction Refineries | Mostly located in Tamil Nadu |
Anthurium Cultivation Guide
1. Botanical Classification & Growth Conditions
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Botanical Name | Anthurium spp. |
| Family | Araceae |
| Ideal Growing Conditions | 75% shade, 25-28°C day temperature, 80% RH |
| Propagation Method | By suckers |
2. Important Anthurium Species
| Category | Species |
|---|---|
| Cut-flower Species | Anthurium andraeanum |
| Variegated Foliage Species | Anthurium grandi |
3. Growth Enhancement & Yield
| Technique | Effect |
|---|---|
| BA (Benzyladenine) at 750 PPM | Increases sucker production |
| Yield | 8-12 flowers per plant per year |
4. Popular Anthurium Varieties by Color
| Color | Popular Varieties |
|---|---|
| Red | Mickey Mouse, Jacqueline, Mauritius Red, Butterfly |
| Orange | Nitta, Sunburst, Diamond Jubilee |
| White | Hidden Treasure |
| Pink | Surprise, Agnihotri, Passion, Paradise Pink |
Mushroom Cultivation Guide
1. Botanical Classification & Growth Conditions
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Definition | Above-ground fruiting body of a fungus with a shaft and cap |
| Nutritional Benefits | Rich in protein, contains 9 essential amino acids |
| Health Benefits | Source of lovastatin (lowers cholesterol), Vitamin D |
| Major Research Center | Directorate of Mushroom Research (Solan, Himachal Pradesh) |
2. Important Mushroom Varieties & Cultivation Details
| Mushroom Type | Scientific Name | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| White Button Mushroom | Agaricus bisporus, A. bitorquis | 90% of India’s production, compost-grown |
| Oyster Mushroom | Pleurotus spp. | Most popular species |
| Paddy Straw Mushroom | Volvariella dysplasi | Cultivated in South India |
| Milky Mushroom | Calocybe indica | Commercially grown in South India |
| Shiitake Mushroom | Lentinula edodes | High medicinal value |
| Black Ear Mushroom | Auricularia polytricha | Used in Asian cuisine |
| Giant Mushroom | Stropharia rugoso-annulata | Large-sized edible mushroom |
3. Medicinal & Commercial Uses
| Use | Details |
|---|---|
| Medicinal Uses | Maitake, Shiitake, and Reishi mushrooms used for anticancer, antiviral, and immunity-boosting properties |
| Dyeing Industry | Mushrooms used for dyeing wool & fibers with organic chromophores |
Ornamental Flowers – Botanical Names, Families, and Key Details
| Flower | Botanical Name | Family | Origin | Common Names | Key Characteristics | Propagation | Flowering Season |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tuberose | Agave amica | Asparagaceae | Mexico | Rajnigandha, Gul-e-Shabu | Highly fragrant single variety; spikes last 7-12 days in vases; peak flowering season between June and October. | Not specified | June to October |
| China Aster | Callistephus chinensis | Asteraceae | China | – | Excellent cut flower; pure yellow color absent; classified into several types (Chrysanthemum flowered, Mammoth Peony flowered, Giant Californian, Comet, Victoria, Pampon, Branching). | Usually by seeds | 3-4 months from sowing |
| Dahlia | Dahlia pinnata | Asteraceae | Mexico | – | Wide variety of ray florets colors; central crown bud is retained for blooming; disbudding done for quality; stopping and thinning practiced. | Not specified | Not specified |
| Gerbera | Gerbera jamesonii | Asteraceae | South Africa | African Daisy, Barberton Daisy, Transvaal Daisy | Dwarf perennial herbaceous plant; named after German naturalist Traugott Gerber; commercial flowering starts from the 3rd year onwards. | Not specified | Not specified |
Chromosome Numbers of Flowers
| Sr. No. | Flower Name | Chromosome Number |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Verbena | 20 |
| 2 | Salvia | 6 |
| 3 | Rose | 7 |
| 4 | Narcissus | 7 |
| 5 | Lotus | 8 |
| 6 | Antirrhinum | 8 |
| 7 | Aster | 9 |
| 8 | China Aster | 9 |
| 9 | Chrysanthemum | 9 |
| 10 | Canna | 9 |
| 11 | Dahlia | 8 |
| 12 | Amaryllis | 11 |
| 13 | Marigold | 12 |
| 14 | Tulip | 12 |
| 15 | Zinnia | 12 |
| 16 | Cosmos | 12 |
| 17 | Gladiolus | 15 |
| 18 | Carnation | 15 |
| 19 | Bougainvillea | 17 |
| 20 | Gaillardia | 18 |
| 21 | Barlerin | 20 |
| 22 | Tuberose | 30 |
| 23 | Agave | 30 |
Growth and Precooling Temperatures of Flowers
| Sr. No. | Crop | Day Temperature (°C) | Night Temperature (°C) | Precooling Temperature (°C) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Rose | 18 | 28 | 1-2 |
| 2 | Chrysanthemum | 16 | 8-10 | 5-40 |
| 3 | Gerbera | 16 | 12 | 2-0 |
| 4 | Carnation | 18 | 13 | 10 |
| 5 | Anthurium | 24 | 18 | 30 |
| 6 | Orchid (tropical) | 27 | 16 | 8-10 |
| 7 | Lilium | 25 | 10 | 5-4-0 |
| 8 | Gladiolus | – | – | 4-50 |
Important Flower Breeders in India
| Flower Type | Breeders |
| Rose | 1. B.P. Pal, 2. J.P. Agarwal, 3. S.C. Dey, 4. A.P. Singh |
| Bougainvillea | 1. T.N. Khushoo, 2. S.N. Zadoo, 3. D. Ohri, 4. Vishnuswarup |
| Chrysanthemum | 1. M.A. Kher, 2. S.K. Dutta, 3. M.N. Gupta |
| Jasmine | 1. H.C. Srivastava, 2. S. Muthuswamy, 3. Bhupal Rao, 4. Madhava Rao |
| Hibiscus | 1. R.N. Bhatt, 2. M. Virupaksha |
| Gladiolus | 1. Bajrang Bahadur Singh Bhandari, 2. R.L. Mishra, 3. S.S. Negi, 4. D. Mukherjee |
| Dahlia | 1. Swami Vinayananda, 2. P.K. Das, 3. A.K. Dey |
Cultivars of Ornamentals Developed in India
Amaranthus
- Amar shola
Bougainvillea
- Dr. R.R. Pal, Sonnet, Spring Festival, Summer time, Stanza, Dr. B.P. Pal, Vishaka, Begam Sikander, Mary Palmer Special, Sensation, Thimma (Variegated foliage), Dr. Rao, Partha (Bicoloured variety), H.C. Buck
Chrysanthemum
- Indra, Kirti, Chandrakant, Baggi, Basanti Sport, Sonar Bangla, Kasturba Gandhi, R. Venkatraman
- Pompon: Apsara, Birbal Sahni, Kundan
- No pinch-No staking: Apurva, Arun Kumar, Haldi Ghati, Sharad Kumar
- Off season cultivars: Himanshu, Jwala, Maghi, Meghdoot
China Aster
- Kamini, Poornima, Phule Ganesh Pink, Phule Ganesh Violet, Phule Ganesh Purple, Shashank, Violet Cushion
Coreopsis
- Pusa Tara
Dahlia
- Kenya Blue, Manali, Manjushri, Swami Vinayananda, Swamiji, White Star, Lucky Star
Gladiolus
- Agni Rekha, Pusa Suhagin, Sanjeevini, Swamima, Mridula, Mukta, Priyadarshani, Pusa Suwasini
Hibiscus
- Bharat Sundari, Smt. Indira Gandhi, Smt. Kamala Nehru, Queen of Hissarghatta
Hippeastrum
- Suryakiran
Hollyhock
- Dulhan, Pusa Apricot Supreme, Pusa Krishna, Pusa Lalima, Pusa Shweta
Jasmine
- Surbhi, Mohra
Tuberose
- Rajat Rekha, Swarna Rekha, Shringar, Surasini
Rose
- Hybrid Tea: Arjun, Rajkumari, Raktagandha, Bhim
- Floribunda: Mohini, Sindhoor, Suchitra (thornless)
- Miniature: Delhi Scarlet
- Polyantha: Swati, Rashmi
- Climber: Delhi White Pearl, Delhi Pink Pearl
Croton
- Shahid Bhagat Singh, Vikrant
Portulaca
- Jhumka
Anthurium
- Agnihotri
- Cut Flower Species: Anthurium adreanum
- Variegated Foliage: Anthurium grandi
Pest Management
| Sr. No. | Crop | Common Name | Scientific Name | Remarks |
| 1 | Rose | Red scale | Anidellia auranti | Most serious pest |
| 2 | Carnation | Red spider mite | Tetranychus spp. | |
| 3 | Chrysanthemum | Aphids | Myzus persicae | |
| 4 | Gladiolus | Aphids | Myzus persicae | |
| 5 | Lilium | Aphids | Myzus persicae |
Pulsing Rate and Storage Temperature of Flowers
| Sr. No. | Crop | Pulsing Solution | Storage Temperature (°C) | Storage Life |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Rose | 2-5% sucrose | 0.5-2°C | – |
| 2 | Chrysanthemum | 2-5% sucrose | 0.5-2°C | – |
| 3 | Gladiolus | 20% sucrose | 4°C | 7-10 days |
| 4 | Gerbera | 20% sucrose | 5-7°C | 12-15 days |
| 5 | Orchid | – | 13°C | 7-15 days |
| 6 | Anthurium | – | 15-20°C | – |
| 7 | Crossandra | – | 8-12°C | – |
| 8 | Marigold | – | 7-10°C | – |
| 9 | Tuberose | – | – | – |
Miscellaneous Information
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Carnation | Susceptible to ethylene injury (sleepiness). |
| Anthurium | Resistant to ethylene injury (sleepiness). |
| Modified part of Anthurium | Spathe. |
| Protandry | Observed in Rose and Chrysanthemum. |
| Jasmine | Substitute for saffron. |
| Marigold | Used to produce natural color. |
| Defoliation in Jasmine | Penta chloro isophenol used. |
| China Aster | True short-day plant. |
| Dahlia | Known as the “King of Flowers.” |
| Model Floriculture Centers | Maharashtra and Karnataka. |
| Floriculture Infrastructure Park | Hosur, Tamil Nadu (TANFLORA), Talegaon, Pune. |
| First International Flower Auction | Bangalore, 2002 (IFAB). |
| Anthurium | Listed in NASA’s air-purifying plants list. |
History of Post-Harvest Technology (PHT)
| Event | Year | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Organized fruit & vegetable processing started | 1857 | Initiated in India. |
| Canning of fruits and vegetables started | 1927 | – |
| Father of Canning | 1804 | Nicolas Appert (France). |
| First explanation of food spoilage | 1749 | Needham explained the cause of spoilage. |
| First food preserved in glass containers | 1804 | Nicolas Appert preserved food in glass. |
| Cooking as a preservation method | 1861 | Started by Papin. |
| First fruit & vegetable processing industry (India) | 1935 | Established in Mumbai. |
| Establishment of CFTRI (India) | 1950 | CFTRI, Mysore. |
| Pasteurization discovery | 1864 | By Louis Pasteur. |
| Food Product Order (FPO) | 1955 | Passed by the Government of India. |
| First Fruit Preservation & Canning Institute (India) | 1949 | Established in Lucknow. |
| Preservatives permitted in FPO | N/A | Sodium Benzoate, Potassium Metabisulphite. |
| Post-harvest losses | 20-40% | High losses in fruits & vegetables. |
Types of Post-Harvest Losses
| Type | Details |
|---|---|
| Mechanical Losses | Bruising, cracking, cuts. |
| Microbial Losses | Caused by fungi and bacteria. |
| Physiological Losses | Changes in respiration, transpiration, pigments, flavor. |
Maximum Post-Harvest Losses
| Crop Type | Example | Loss Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| Fruits | Papaya | 40-100% |
| Fruits | Mandarin | 20-95% |
| Vegetables | Cauliflower | 49% |
| Vegetables | Tomato | 40-60% |
Pulsing Rate and Storage Temperature of Flowers
| Sr. No. | Crop | Pulsing Solution | Storage Temperature (°C) | Storage Life |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Rose | 2-5% sucrose | 0.5-2°C | |
| 2 | Chrysanthemum | 2-5% sucrose | 0.5-2°C | |
| 3 | Gladiolus | 20% sucrose | 4°C | 7-10 days |
| 4 | Gerbera | 20% sucrose | 5-7°C | 12-15 days |
| 5 | Orchid | 13°C | 7-15 days | |
| 6 | Anthurium | 15-20°C | ||
| 7 | Crossandra | 8-12°C | ||
| 8 | Marigold | 7-10°C | ||
| 9 | Tuberose |
Miscellaneous Information
| Category | Details |
| Carnation | Susceptible to ethylene injury (sleepiness). |
| Anthurium | Resistant to ethylene injury (sleepiness). |
| Modified Part of Anthurium | Spathe. |
| Protandry | Observed in Rose and Chrysanthemum. |
| Jasmine | Substitute for saffron. |
| Marigold | Used to produce natural color. |
| Defoliation in Jasmine | Penta chloro isophenol used. |
| China Aster | True short-day plant. |
| Dahlia | Known as the “King of Flowers.” |
| Model Floriculture Centers | Established in Maharashtra and Karnataka. |
| Floriculture Infrastructure Park | Hosur, Tamil Nadu (TANFLORA) and Talegaon, Pune. |
| First International Flower Auction | Set up in Bangalore in 2002 (IFAB). |
| Anthurium | Listed in NASA’s air-purifying plants list. |
History of Post-Harvest Technology (PHT)
| Event | Year | Details |
| Organized fruit and vegetable processing started | 1857 | Initiated in India. |
| Canning of fruits and vegetables started | 1927 | |
| Father of Canning | 1804 | Nicolas Appert (France). |
| First explanation of food spoilage | 1749 | Needham explained the cause of spoilage. |
| First food preserved in glass containers | 1804 | Nicolas Appert preserved food in glass. |
| Cooking as a preservation method | 1861 | Started by Papin. |
| First fruit and vegetable processing industry (India) | 1935 | Established in Mumbai. |
| Establishment of CFTRI (India) | 1950 | CFTRI, Mysore. |
| Pasteurization discovery | 1864 | By Louis Pasteur. |
| Food Product Order (FPO) | 1955 | Passed by the Government of India. |
| First Fruit Preservation and Canning Institute (India) | 1949 | Established in Lucknow. |
| Preservatives permitted in FPO | N/A | Sodium Benzoate, Potassium Metabisulphite (KMS). |
| Post-harvest losses | 20-40% | High losses in fruits and vegetables. |
Types of Post-Harvest Losses
| Type | Details |
| Mechanical Losses | Bruising, cracking, cuts. |
| Microbial Losses | Caused by fungi and bacteria. |
| Physiological Losses | Changes in respiration, transpiration, pigments, flavor. |
Maximum Post-Harvest Losses
| Crop Type | Example | Loss Percentage |
| Fruits | Papaya | 40-100% |
| Fruits | Mandarin | 20-95% |
| Vegetables | Cauliflower | 49% |
| Vegetables | Tomato | 40-60% |
Pre-Harvest Practices
| Practice | Details |
| Pruning/Thinning | Increases fruit size, decreases TSS and acidity. |
| Nutrient Management | K, Mn, Zn improve fruit quality, while high N and P deteriorate it. |
| Irrigation | Insufficient irrigation enhances maturity; stop irrigation 3 weeks before harvesting onion and garlic. |
| Deficiencies | Mo deficiency in cabbage causes heart rot, Mn deficiency in peas causes marsh spot. |
| Issues from Excessive Irrigation/Fertilization | Causes hollow-heart in potato. |
Pre-Harvest Treatments
| Treatment | Effect |
| Malic Hydrazide (MH) | Reduces sprouting of onion and potatoes during storage. |
| Difolatan (0.2%) | Controls post-harvest diseases of tomato and onion. |
| N-Benzyladenine (BA) (10-20 PPM) | Prolongs shelf life of vegetables. |
Maturity Index of Horticultural Crops
| Parameter | Crop | Details |
| Shape | Banana | Disappearance of angularity |
| Pineapple | Flattening of eyes | |
| Litchi | Flattening of tubercles | |
| Juiciness | Sweet Corn | Indicated by juiciness |
| Tapping | Watermelon, Jackfruit | Sound changes upon tapping |
| Solidity | Cabbage | Checked by firmness |
| Netting | Musk Melon | Appearance of netting on the rind |
| Aroma | Jackfruit | Emits a strong aroma |
| Specific Gravity | Alphonso Mango | 1.01-1.02 |
| Dashehari Mango | 1.00 | |
| Potato | 0.98-1.02 | |
| Pineapple | 0.98-1.02 | |
| Guava | 1.00 | |
| Total Soluble Solids (TSS) | Grape (Anab-e-Shahi) | 14-16°Brix |
| Grape (Thompson Seedless) | 18-22°Brix | |
| Grape (Bangalore Blue) | 12-14°Brix | |
| Mandarin | 12-14°Brix | |
| Sweet Orange | 12°Brix | |
| Papaya | 11.5°Brix | |
| Pineapple | 12-14°Brix | |
| Acidity | Mandarin | 0.4% |
| Sweet Orange | 0.3% | |
| Mango | 0.5-0.6% | |
| Pineapple | 0.5-0.6% | |
| Days from Fruit Set to Harvest | Banana | 90 days |
| Alphonso Mango | 110-125 days | |
| Pairi Mango | 110-125 days | |
| Sapota | 300 days | |
| Mandarin | 185 days | |
| Juice Content | Citrus | 35-50% |
Processing Technology of Horticultural Crops
| Process | Details |
|---|---|
| A) Canning (Sterilization) | Syruping (Fruits), Brining (Vegetables). Fruits processed at 100°C. Vegetables (except Tomato & Rhubarb) processed at 115-121°C under 10-15 Ib/inch² pressure. |
| Canning Steps | Grading → Washing → Peeling → Blanching → Can filling → Syruping/Brining → Exhaustion → Sealing → Processing |
| Lye Peeling | Used for Potato, Peach, Citrus |
| Flame Peeling | Used for Onion |
| B) Pasteurization | Heating of fruit & vegetable juice at 85-90°C for 30 minutes. |
| C) Freezing | Cryogenic liquids: Liquid N₂ (-196°C), Liquid CO₂ (-43°C). Quick freezing at -18 to -25°C. Household refrigerators: 4.4°C to 7.2°C. |
| D) Drying | Removal of moisture by applying heat. |
| E) Preservation with Sugar | High sugar concentration aids preservation. |
| Candid Fruits | Dehydrated using osmotic pressure. Examples: Pointed gourd, Bottle gourd, Ash gourd, Citrus, Karonda, Cherry, Ginger, Petha. |
| Crystallized Fruits | Fruits coated with sugar crystals. Examples: Ginger, Cherry. |
| Marmalade | Fruit jelly with citrus peels suspended. |
| Jam | Sugar content must be at least 68%. |
| Fruit Syrup (Sharbat) | Contains >66% sugar, preventing fermentation. |
| F) Preservation by Salt | Salt concentration (10-25%) is effective for food preservation. |
| G) Food Additives | Used to enhance preservation, taste, and texture. |
Food Additives in Horticultural Crop Processing
| Category | Examples |
|---|---|
| Antioxidants | BHA, BHT, Propyl gallate, SnCl₂ |
| Preservatives | SO₂, Benzoic acid, Sorbic acid |
| Surface Active Agents | Monosodium phosphate |
| Stabilizers | CMC (Carboxymethyl cellulose), Pectin |
| Sweeteners | Aspartame, Glycyrrhizic acid |
| Flavoring Agent | Monosodium glutamate |
| Coloring Agent | Titanium dioxide, Carbon black |
| Bleaching Agents | Benzoyl Peroxide, H₂O₂ |
Flavor & Color Compounds in Horticultural Crops
| Category | Examples |
|---|---|
| Salty Taste | NaCl (Sodium chloride) |
| Sour Taste (Organic Acids) | Citric, Tartaric, Malic acids |
| Vitamin C Source | Ascorbic acid (Fruits & Vegetables) |
| Bitter Compounds | Naringin (Grapefruit), Amygdalin (Almond), Sinigrin (Mustard, Horseradish), Caffeine (Tea, Coffee) |
| Flavonoids (Flavor Compounds) | Hesperidin (Orange, Lemon), Naringenin (Grapefruit) |
| Terpenoids (Flavor Compounds) | Neral & Geraniol (Lemon), Nootaketone (Grapefruit) |
| Volatile Compounds | Banana: Isopentyl acetate, Almond: Benzaldehyde, Apple: 2-Methyl butyrate |
| Esters (Fruity Aromas) | Grape: Methyl salicylate, Apple: Pentyl valerate, Orange: Octyl acetate, Strawberry: Ethyl butyrate |
Food Colors in Horticultural Crops
| Color Compound | Characteristics & Examples |
|---|---|
| Chlorophyll | Green pigment in plants (Chlorophyll a:b ratio = 3:1) |
| Carotenoids | Fat-soluble, orange-yellow pigment. Examples: Lycopene (Tomato), Capsanthin (Black Pepper), Bixin (Annatto) |
| Anthocyanins | Water-soluble pigments (Red, Blue, Purple). Examples: Cherry, Apple, Jamun |
| Flavonoids | Cream-white color. Examples: Potato, Cauliflower |
| Tannins | Responsible for astringency. Examples: Brinjal, Apple, Bottle gourd |
| Other Pigments | Mangiferin (Mango), Betalains (Beetroot) |
Preservation Techniques in Horticulture
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| (J) Preservation by Chemicals | |
| Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) | Salt: KMS (Potassium metabisulphite), acts against bacteria & molds, max limit 700 PPM |
| Benzoic acid | Salt: Sodium benzoate, effective against yeast, used for colored juices/pulp, max limit 100 PPM |
| (K) Preservation by Fermentation | |
| Fermentation | Decomposition of carbohydrates by microorganisms/enzymes |
| Acetic acid fermentation | Example: Fruit juice vinegar |
| Lactic acid fermentation | |
| Cabbage | Microorganisms: Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus → Product: Sauerkraut |
| Cucumber, Tomato, Mango, Lemon | Microorganisms: Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus → Product: Pickle |
| Black Carrot | Microorganism: Streptococcus → Product: Kanji (Popular in North India) |
| Alcoholic fermentation | Carbohydrates + Yeast → Alcohol |
| (L) Fermented Beverages | |
| Wine | Alcohol content: 7-20%, Sparkling wine contains CO₂, Grape varieties: Beauty Seedless, Arka Shyam |
| Nira | Prepared from Palm tree juice |
| Feni | Prepared from Cashew apple juice |
| Cider | Prepared from Apple juice |
| (M) Cold Sterilization | Food preserved by ionizing radiation at 4-5°C, also known as cold sterilization |
| Canning | Also known as Appertizing |
| Jam | Prepared from fruit pulp |
| Jelly | Prepared from juice/clear water extract of fruit |
| Dehydration | Vegetables: 60-66°C, Fruits: 61-71°C |
| Vinegar | Oldest known product of fermentation |
| Jelmeter Test | Used to determine pectin content |
| Popular Pickles | Mango pickle ranks 1st in India, Cucumber pickle ranks 1st in the world |
| Salt Concentration for Pickles | Should be 10% |
Unfermented Beverages and Food Spoilage
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| (N) Unfermented Beverages | |
| Product | Fruit Juice % |
| Natural Juice | 100% |
| Sweetened Juice | 85% |
| RTS (Ready-to-Serve) | 10% |
| Nectar (All Fruits) | 20% |
| Tomato Juice | 100% |
| Tomato Puree | 25% |
| Tomato Soup | 7% |
| Tomato Ketchup | 28% |
| Tomato Sauce | 30% |
| Barley Water | 25% |
| Chutney | 40% |
| Jam | 45% |
| Jelly | 45% |
| Preserve | 55% |
| Sharbat | 65% |
| Squash | 5% |
| Crush | 25% |
| Syrup | 7% |
(O) Food Spoilage
| Food Type | Type of Spoilage |
|---|---|
| Fresh Fruits & Vegetables | 1. Gray mould rot 2. Rhizopus soft rot 3. Blue mould rot 4. Black mould rot 5. Sliminess or souring |
| Pickles | 1. Black pickle 2. Soft pickle |
Additional Information
| Detail | Information |
|---|---|
| Determination of TSS | By Hand Refractometer |
| Estimation of Sugar | By Shaffer micro-method |
| PFA Act | Prevention of Food Adulteration Act – 1954 |
| Salometer | Used for measuring salt concentration (° Salometer) |
| Citric Acid | Known as “Nature’s Acidulant” |
Fruit Beverages and Post-Harvest Products
A) Unfermented Beverages
| Product | Fruit Juice % | TSS % | Acidity % | SO₂ (ppm) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unsweetened Juice | 100 | – | – | – | Pure fruit juice without additives. |
| Sweetened Juice | 85 | 10 | 1.0 | – | Contains added sugar. |
| RTS (Ready to Serve) | 10 | 10 | 0.3 | – | Diluted before serving. |
| Nectar | 20 | 15 | 0.3 | – | Made from mango and papaya; diluted before serving. |
| Cordial | 25 | 30 | 1.5 | 350 | Clear fruit juice, no pulp; commonly lime and lemon. |
| Squash | 25 | 40-50 | 1.0 | 350 | Contains pulp; diluted before serving, mango/orange-based. |
| Crush | 25 | 55 | 1.0 | 350 | Similar to squash but with higher TSS. |
| Syrup | 25 | 65 | 1.3-1.5 | 350 | Thick, sweet beverage; used in drinks and desserts. |
| Fruit Juice Concentrate | 32 | – | – | – | Contains very little water; highly concentrated juice. |
| Fruit Juice Powder | – | – | – | – | Powdered form of juice, highly hygroscopic. |
| Barley Water | 25 | 30 | 1.0 | – | Made from lime, lemon, grapefruit with barley starch. |
B) Fermented Beverages
| Product | Details |
|---|---|
| Wine | Made by fermenting grape juice using yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. ellipsoideus). |
| Light Wine | 7-9% alcohol. |
| Medium Wine | 9-16% alcohol. |
| Strong Wine | 16.1% and above alcohol. |
| Red Wine | Made from colored grapes with skin intact. |
| White Wine | Made from white or green grapes with skin removed. |
Fermented Beverages Details
| Beverage | Ingredients | Alcohol Content | Additional Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Perry | Pears | N/A | N/A |
| Berry | Strawberries, Blackberries | N/A | N/A |
| Nira | Palmyrah Palm Juice | N/A | Traditional Indian Beverage |
| Feni | Cashew Apples | N/A | Popular in Goa, India |
| Cider | Apples (also Bael, Jamun) | N/A | Made from juice of various fruits. |
| Champagne | Grapes | Sparkling Wine | Made in France. |
| Port | Red Grapes | Fortified Wine | Originally from Portugal. |
| Tokay | Grapes | Fortified Wine | Originally from Hungary. |
Wine Characteristics
| Characteristic | Details |
|---|---|
| Aging/Maturation Time | 6-8 months |
| Optimum Fermentation Temperature | 22-28°C |
| Common Yeast for Wine | Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. ellipsoideus (20 ml/kg of grapes) |
| Common Yeast for Cider | Saccharomyces carlsbergensis |
Post-Harvest Products
1. Jam
| Characteristic | Details |
|---|---|
| Definition | Thick fruit pulp boiled with sugar. |
| Composition | 0.5-0.6% acid, 40% invert sugar. |
| Common Fruits Used | Mango, Pear, Apple, Sapota, Peach, Papaya, Tomato, Raspberry. |
| Crystallization Issue | Occurs if sugar is less than 30%. |
| Sticky/Gummy Texture | Due to high TSS. |
| Premature Setting Issue | Low TSS and high pectin. |
| Maximum SO₂ Limit | 40 ppm (as KMS). |
2. Jelly
| Characteristic | Details |
|---|---|
| Definition | Semi-solid product made from clear fruit extract and sugar, free from pulp. |
| Composition | 65% TSS, pH 3.2, at least 0.5% pectin. |
| Common Fruits Used | Guava, Sour Apple, Plum, Wood Apple, Gooseberry, Papaya, Loquat. |
| Best Fruit Condition | Firm ripe fruits. |
| Premature Gelation | Due to excess pectin. |
| Pectin Test | Alcohol or telometer test. |
| Common Acid Added | Citric Acid (2 g/kg of fruit). |
| Syneresis | Fluid exudation from a gel. |
3. Marmalade
| Characteristic | Details |
|---|---|
| Definition | Citrus fruit slices in sugar solution. |
| Cooking Temperature | 103-105°C |
| Cooling Temperature | 82-88°C |
| End Point | 65% TSS at 105°C |
| Common Problem | Browning |
| Browning Prevention | Addition of KMS (0.09 g/kg of marmalade). |
| Commonly Used Peel | Sweet orange peel. |
4. Candy
| Characteristic | Details |
|---|---|
| Definition | Fruit or vegetable impregnated with cane sugar syrup, then dried. |
5. Pickle
| Characteristic | Details |
|---|---|
| Definition | Preservation of food in salt or vinegar. |
| Preservation Method | Fermentation by lactic acid bacteria. |
| Salt Concentration | 15% inhibits spoilage organisms. |
| Recommended Vinegar | 10% for fruit and vegetable pickles. |
| Active Temperature | 30°C (best for lactic acid bacteria). |
| Common Problem | Scum formation due to wild yeast. |
| Cloudiness Issue | Caused by inferior vinegar. |
| Popular in India | Mango pickle ranks 1st, followed by cauliflower, onion, turnip, and lime pickle. |
Tomato Products (FPO Specifications)
| Product | Specifications |
|---|---|
| Tomato Juice | TSS: 5% |
| Tomato Soup | TSS: 7% |
| Medium Puree | TSS: 9%, Citric Acid: 0.4%, Sugar: 1%, Salt: 0.5%, Benzoic Acid: 250 ppm |
| Heavy Puree | TSS: 25%, Benzoic Acid: 250 ppm |
| Tomato Paste | TSS: 25%, Benzoic Acid: 250 ppm |
| Tomato Sauce/Ketchup | TSS: 25%, Tomato Solid: 12%, Acetic Acid: 1%, Benzoic Acid: 750 ppm |
Selection Criteria for Vegetables
| Vegetable | Selection Criteria |
|---|---|
| Potatoes | Firm, clean, smooth surface; no sogginess or sprouting eyes. |
| Tomatoes | Firm, bright red, uniform, smooth surface; no holes, cracks, or sogginess. |
| Carrots | Orange to yellow, firm, smooth, fresh; no holes, cracks, or sogginess. |
| Beans & Peas | Bright green, firm, tender, fresh; easily snaps when broken, clean. |
| Cabbage | Green, fresh, compact; no holes, yellow, or withered leaves. |
| Brinjal (Eggplant) | Bright purple, oval/round shape; no scars, decay, or holes; smooth and firm. |
| Green Leafy Vegetables | Fresh, no yellow or withered leaves; free from insect infestation, dirt, or mud. |
Post-Harvest Management of Vegetables and Spices
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Potato | – Suberization: Healing process at 25°C, 95% RH. – Dormancy: Short (Kufri Chandramukhi, Kufri Bahar), Long (Kufri Lalima, Kufri Sindhuri). – Sprout Suppressant: MH (Maleic Hydrazide). – Storage Threats: Tuber moth (high temperature), Soft rot (Erwinia spp.) (high humidity). – Storage Methods: Cold storage (45% of total production), heaps & pits (plains/plateaus). |
| Tuber Crops | – Significance: 3rd most important food crop after cereals & legumes. – Consumption: 1/5th of the world’s population. |
| Cassava | – Industrial Use: Starch production. – Top Exporters: Thailand & Indonesia. – Toxicity: Contains cyanoglucosides (linamarin & lotaustralin) → Hydrocyanic acid. |
| Sweet Potato & Others | – Sweet Potato: Contains trypsin inhibitor (affects digestion). – Elephant Foot Yam: High in oxalic acid. – Arrowroot Starch: Used in infant food. |
| Spices | – Black Pepper Harvest: Dec–March (Kerala). – White Pepper Recovery: 22-27% of green pepper. – Ginger Varieties: Dry Ginger (Himachal, Maran, Mananthody, Kuruppampaddy); Raw Ginger (Rio-de-Janeiro, China Wyanad, Varada). – Ginger Trade Types: Cochin & Calicut ginger. – Cinnamon Oil Content: Bark oil (high cinnamaldehyde), Leaf oil (high eugenol). – Nutmeg to Mace Ratio: 20:3 (dried shelled nutmeg to dried mace). – Celery Harvest: 4-5 months after sowing. |
Horticulture & Food Preservation Techniques
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Temperature Control | – Syruping Temp: 79-82°C. – Sealing Temp: 74°C. – Cellar Storage: 15°C (for underground tubers). |
| Food Processing & Preservation | – Caramelization: Sugar browning at high temperatures. – Lye Peeling: 1-2% NaOH for 30 sec – 2 min (Potato, Peach). – Blanching: Inactivates plant enzymes (scalding/parboiling). |
| Fermentation & Microbial Control | – Fermentation: Organic compounds act as both donor & acceptor. – Maillard Reaction: Non-enzymatic browning in food. – D-Value: Time to kill 90% of microorganisms. – F-Value: Combination of time & temperature for microbial inactivation. |
| Canning & Packaging | – Exhausting Temp: 82-100°C. – Cooling Temp: 39°C. – Can Types: R-enamel (acid-resistant for fruits), C-enamel (sulfur-resistant for vegetables). – Canning Damage: Flat Sour (Bacillus spp.) causes spoilage. |
| Miscellaneous Facts | – Honey: The only food that doesn’t spoil. – Selenium: An antioxidant mineral. – Food Color Limit: Max 200 PPM allowed. – Measurement of Fruit Firmness: Pepeometer. – Central Food Laboratory: Located in Kolkata. |
Specifications and Information in Horticulture and Food Preservation
| Sr. No. | Product/Aspect | Specifications/Details |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Bottled or Canned Fruit | – Head space: Not more than 1-6 cm – Drained weight of fruit: Not less than 50% – No preservatives added – No artificial color – Can should not show any pressure at sea level – No sign of bacteria growth at 37 °C |
| 2 | Bottled or Canned Vegetables | – Head space: Not more than 1-6 cm – Drained weight: At least 55% (50% for tomatoes) – No preservatives added – No artificial color (except for peas) – Can should not show any pressure at sea level – No sign of bacteria growth at 37 °C |
| 3 | Ethylene Application | For climacteric fruits: 0.1 to 1.0 ml/litre |
| 4 | India’s Rankings | – First in productivity of Grapes, Banana, Cassava, Peas, and Papaya |
| 5 | Export Growth | – Fresh fruits and vegetables: 14% value growth – Processed fruits and vegetables: 16.27% value growth |
| 6 | Vitamin A Requirement | About 750 µg (Retinol) required per day for healthy vision |
| 7 | Vinegar Concentration | Should not exceed 2% in preservatives |
| 8 | Salt Concentration in Pickles | 15% or above prevents microbial growth |
| 9 | Mango Varieties for Slicing | Alphonso, Dashehari, Neelum |
| 10 | Ascorbic Acid | 100 g for retention of color, flavor, and carotene |
| 11 | Mango Puree Brix Adjustment | Adjusted to 30º Brix |
| 12 | Mango Varieties for Wine | Bombay Green, Dashehari, Chausa, Langra, Mallika |
| 13 | Coaltar Dye in Food | Should not exceed 0-2 g/kg of the final product |
| 14 | Jam Marmalade | Prepared from pulp of citrus fruits |
| 15 | Jelly Marmalade | Prepared from extract of citrus fruits |
| 16 | Crystal Formation in Jelly | Due to excess sugar and less cooking |
| 17 | Brine Concentration in Canning | 1-3% |
| 18 | Sirka Preservative | Used in squash preparation |
| 19 | Fruit Type for Jelly | Firm ripe fruits |
| 20 | Osmosis Principle | Sugar and salt react based on the principle of osmosis |
| 21 | Oil | Creates anaerobic conditions |
| 22 | SO₂ | Retards growth of bacteria and fungi |
| 23 | BA | Retards yeast growth |
Storage Methods and Specifications in Horticulture
| Sr. No. | Aspect | Details |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Controlled Modified Storage | Best method of storage |
| 2 | Washing Solution | Cl concentration: 50 PPM |
| 3 | CO₂ Concentration in Cold Drinks | 1-8 g/litre |
| 4 | Benzoic Acid Effectiveness | Increases in the presence of CO₂ |
| 5 | Jam Sugar Content | – Less than 30% sugar: Crystals will form – More than 50% sugar: Honey-like mass will form |
| 6 | Freshness Retention | Waxol (3%) is more efficient than Tal Prolong (1-1.5%) |
| 7 | Enzyme Activity | All enzymes lose activity if heated to 80 °C and above |
| 8 | Heat Application | Can effectively check both microbial and enzyme spoilage |
| 9 | Freezing Process | – Preserves food without major changes in physiochemical composition – Quick freezing: Max crystallization temperature (−18 to −25 °C) |
| 10 | Frozen Peaches Preparation | Used as halves, quarters, slices, or pieces (15 mm). – Prepared with syrup: Should have 15-30% TSS at 20 °C |
| 11 | Jam and Jelly Fruit Selection | Any fruit of suitable variety can be used |
| 12 | Acetic Acid Concentration | – Pickles, sauce, ketchup: 0.5% |
| 13 | Ultrafiltration | A cold process used in various food preservation techniques |
| 14 | Zero Energy Cool Chamber (ZECC) | – Principle: Direct evaporative cooling system – No electricity required – Materials: Sand, bricks, bamboo – Above ground double-wall structure with sand filling – Lid made of dry grass/straw on bamboo frame – Built by unskilled labor |
| 15 | Temperature and Humidity in ZECC | – Reduces temperature to 10-15 °C – Maintains high humidity (~95%) – Maximum temperature: 28 °C, Humidity: 90% |
| 16 | Cost of ZECC | Total cost involved: Rs. 4000-5000 – National Horticulture Board provides 100% grant in aid |
| 17 | Advantages of ZECC | – Maintains fruit firmness by lowering physiological loss in weight – Small and marginal farmers can store produce for a few days |
| 18 | Cool Storage Sheds | Developed by Compatible Technology International (CTI) – Uses evaporating water to lower air temperature – Supports storage of potatoes, onions, and other vegetables for extended shelf life |
Storage Conditions & Nutritive Value of Fruits and Vegetables: A Complete Guide
Proper storage of fruits and vegetables is essential for maintaining freshness, shelf life, and nutrient content. This guide covers optimal storage conditions and the nutritional value of various fruits and vegetables, including vitamins, minerals, and calorific values.
Storage Conditions for Vegetables and Fruits
Different fruits and vegetables require specific temperature and humidity levels to maximize storage life. Here’s a comprehensive table:
Storage Conditions for Vegetables
| Vegetable | Storage Temperature (°C) | Relative Humidity (RH%) | Storage Life (Weeks) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Devioka | 70-75 °C | 80-90% | 10-13 |
| Cucumber | 10-11 °C | 92% | 2 |
| Tomato | 8-9 °C | 85-90% | 4-5 |
| Pumpkin | 17-18 °C | 70-75% | 24-36 |
| Green Chilli | 7-12 °C | 72% | 8 |
| Ripe Chilli | 5-7 °C | – | – |
| Potato | 3-4 °C | 85% | 34 |
| Cole Crops | 0-1 °C | 92-95% | 4-6 |
| Garlic | 0 °C | 65% | 20-36 |
| Carrot/Radish | 0 °C | 95% | 20-24 |
| Peas/Turnip | 0 °C | 95% | – |
Storage Conditions for Fruits
| Fruit | Storage Temperature (°C) | Relative Humidity (RH%) | Storage Life (Weeks) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Banana | 12-13 °C | 80-85% | 1-2 |
| Pineapple | 11-13 °C | 80-86% | 6 |
| Papaya/Guava | 9-10 °C | – | – |
| Mango/Grapefruit | 8-9 °C | – | – |
| Sweet Orange | 7-8 °C | – | – |
| Mandarin | 6-8 °C | – | – |
| Grape/Fig/Litchi | 0-2 °C | – | – |
| Sapota | 34 °C | – | – |
| Pomegranate | 0-2 °C | – | – |
| Apple | 0-2 °C | – | 16-32 |
| Pear | 0-1 °C | – | 12-26 |
| Jackfruit | 11-13 °C | – | – |
Nutritive Value of Fruits and Vegetables
Fruits and vegetables are rich in essential vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, and proteins, providing numerous health benefits.
Vitamin Content
| Nutrient | Fruits | Quantity | Vegetables | Quantity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin A | Mango | 4800 IU/100g | Bathua leaves | 11,300 IU/100g |
| Papaya | 2020 IU/100g | Colocasia leaves | 10,278 IU/100g | |
| – | – | Beet leaves | 9770 IU/100g | |
| – | – | Turnip greens | 15,000 IU/100g | |
| Vitamin B (Thiamine) | Cashew nut | 630 mg/100g | Chillies | 0.55 mg/100g |
| Walnut | 450 mg/100g | – | – | |
| Vitamin B (Riboflavin) | Bael | 1191 mg/100g | Fenugreek leaves | 0.31 mg/100g |
| Papaya | 250 mg/100g | – | – | |
| Litchi | 122.5 mg/100g | – | – | |
| Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) | Barbados Cherry | 220 mg/100g | Drumstick leaves | 600 mg/100g |
| Aonla | 600 mg/100g | Coriander leaves | 135 mg/100g | |
| Guava | 299 mg/100g | Chillies | 111 mg/100g | |
| – | – | Broccoli | 109 mg/100g |
Carbohydrate & Protein Content
| Nutrient | Fruits | Quantity | Vegetables | Quantity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carbohydrates | Raisins | 77.3% | Tapioca | 38.19% |
| Apricot (dry) | 72.8% | Sweet Potato | 28-29% | |
| Karonda (dry) | 67.1% | Potato | 22.6% | |
| Protein | Cashew nut | 21.2% | Lima bean | 7.9 g/100g |
| Almond | 20.88% | Peas | 7.2 g/100g | |
| – | – | Cowpea | 4.3 g/100g |
Minerals & Other Nutrients
| Nutrient | Fruits | Quantity | Vegetables | Quantity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fat | Walnut | 64-5% | Potato | 118g/100g |
| Almond | 58-9% | – | – | |
| Fibre | Fig | Not mentioned | Potato | 752g/100g |
| Guava | 6-9% | Chilli | 6-8g/100g | |
| Calcium | Litchi | 0-21% | Agathi | 1130mg/100g |
| Karonda (dry) | 0-16% | Curry leaves | 813mg/100g | |
| Phosphorus | Almond | 0-49% | Amaranthus | 800mg/100g |
| Cashew nut | 0-45% | Garlic | 187mg/100g | |
| Iron | Dry Karonda | 39-1% | Amaranthus | 22-9% |
| Date (Pind) | 10-6% | – | – | |
| Calorific Value | Walnut | 687 kcal/100g | Tapioca | 338 kcal/100g |
| Almond | 655 kcal/100g | Garlic | 142 kcal/100g | |
| Potassium | – | – | Spinach | 605 mg/100g |
| – | – | Amaranthus | 230 mg/100g |
Mineral Nutrition in Plants: Essential Nutrients, Functions, and Deficiency Symptoms
Mineral nutrition plays a crucial role in plant growth, development, and productivity. Below is a detailed classification of essential plant nutrients, their sources, roles, deficiency symptoms, and fertilizers.
1. Essential Elements in Plants (17 Total)
Classification of Nutrients
| Category | Nutrients |
|---|---|
| Basic Nutrients | Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O) |
| Macro-Nutrients | Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sulfur (S) |
| Primary Macro-Nutrients | Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K) |
| Secondary Macro-Nutrients | Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sulfur (S) |
| Micro-Nutrients | Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Molybdenum (Mo), Chlorine (Cl) |
| Beneficial Nutrients | Sodium (Na), Cobalt (Co), Vanadium (Va), Nickel (Ni), Silicon (Si) |
2. Classification of Nutrients Based on Function
| Classification Basis | Types |
|---|---|
| Mobility in Soil | Mobile, Less Mobile, Immobile |
| Mobility in Plant | Highly Mobile, Moderately Mobile, Immobile |
| Function in Plants | Energy Storage, Bonding, Regulators and Carriers, Catalyzers and Activators |
3. Characteristics of Essential Nutrients
- Constitute 96% of total dry matter: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O)
- Macro-nutrient concentration: >100 µg/g dry matter
- Functions:
- Elements useful in energy storage and bonding
- Elements that act as regulators and carriers
- Elements functioning as catalyzers and activators
4. Sources of Essential Nutrients in Plants
| Nutrient | Source |
|---|---|
| Carbon (C) | Carbonate, Air |
| Organic Nutrients | Organic matter |
| Macro-Nutrients (Ca, Mg, K) | Dolomite, Calcite, Apatite |
| Micro-Nutrients (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mo, Cl) | Sphalerite, Horn-blend, Augite |
| Other Elements | Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S), Boron (B), Chromium (Cr), Manganese (Mn) |
5. Minerals, Their Functions & Deficiency Symptoms in Plants
| Nutrient | Function | Deficiency Symptoms |
|---|---|---|
| Nitrogen (N) | Supports vegetative growth, delays maturity | Chlorosis in older leaves |
| Phosphorus (P) | Found in flowers, seeds, root growth | Symptoms first appear on shoot tips |
| Potassium (K) | Osmotic regulation, improves fruit quality | Chlorosis in older leaves, yellow leaf margins |
| Calcium (Ca) | Maintains membrane integrity | Poor root and leaf development |
| Magnesium (Mg) | Constituent of chlorophyll, DNA | Chlorosis in older leaves, yellow leaf margins |
| Sulfur (S) | Essential for protein stability | Chlorosis in younger leaves |
| Iron (Fe) | Key element in photosynthesis | Interveinal chlorosis in younger leaves |
| Manganese (Mn) | Aids respiration and water photolysis | Chlorosis in younger leaves |
| Copper (Cu) | Involved in oxidation-reduction reactions | Affects terminal buds, browning leaf tips |
| Zinc (Zn) | Essential for CO₂ utilization | Short internodes, “little leaf” symptoms |
| Boron (B) | Pollen tube growth, salt translocation | Corky areas in cortex, browning in core region |
| Molybdenum (Mo) | Nitrogen metabolism, enzyme formation | Yellow spots on older leaves |
| Carbon (C) | Photosynthesis, guard cell turgor | Poor photosynthesis, slow growth |
Deficiency Symptoms Based on Leaf Type
| Leaf Type | Deficiency Nutrients |
|---|---|
| Old Leaves | N, P, K, Mg, Mo |
| New Leaves | S, Fe, Mn, Cu |
| Both Old & New | Zn |
| Terminal Bud | Cu, B |
6. Fertilizers: Inorganic & Organic
(A) Inorganic Fertilizers
| Fertilizer | N (%) | P₂O₅ (%) | Additional Info |
|---|---|---|---|
| Anhydrous Ammonia | 82 | – | – |
| Ammonium Sulfate | 20.5 | – | – |
| Ammonium Nitrate (Hazardous) | 33.5 | – | – |
| Single Super Phosphate (SSP) | – | 16 | 12.5% Sulfur |
| Mono Ammonium Phosphate (MAP) | – | 48 | – |
| Rock Phosphate | – | 20-40 | – |
| Basic Slag | – | 14-18 | – |
| Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) | 25 | – | – |
| Muriate of Potash (MOP) | – | – | Potassium-based fertilizer |
| Sulfate of Potash (K₂SO₄) | – | 50 | 60% Potassium |
(B) Organic Fertilizers
| Organic Fertilizer | N (%) | P₂O₅ (%) | K₂O (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Farmyard Manure (FYM) | 0.5-0.75 | 0.2-0.5 | 0.5-0.75 |
| Rural Compost | 0.5-0.75 | 0.2-0.5 | 0.5-0.75 |
| Urban Compost | 1.0-1.75 | 1.0-1.5 | 1.5-3.0 |
| Vermicompost | 1.5-2.0 | 1.0-1.5 | 2.5-3.0 |
| Groundnut Cakes | 7.0-7.3 | 1.5-1.8 | 1.3-1.5 |
| Urea (Organic) | 46 | – | – |
7. Role of Microorganisms in Soil Fertility
| Type | Examples | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Saprophytes | Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma | Decompose organic matter, recycle nutrients |
| Legume Inoculant | Rhizobium | Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria for legumes |
| In Association with Plants | Azospirillum | Nitrogen fixation, enhances root growth |
| Free-Living Organism | Azotobacter | Improves nitrogen availability in non-legume crops |
| Blue-Green Algae | Anabaena, Nostoc | Photosynthetic nitrogen fixation |
| Free Water Fern | Azolla | Symbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria for nitrogen fixation |
| Phosphorus Solubilizers | Pseudomonas, Aspergillus, Bacillus, Penicillium | Convert insoluble phosphorus into absorbable forms |
| Ectotrophic Mycorrhizae | Basidiomycetes | Enhance nutrient and water uptake |
| Endotrophic Mycorrhizae | Glomus, Gigaspora | Improve phosphorus absorption |
Seed Dormancy and Propagation Methods: A Comprehensive Guide
1. Seed Dormancy: Causes and Breaking Methods
| Topic | Details | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Seed Dormancy | Inability of viable seeds to germinate. | – |
| Hard Seed Coat Dormancy | Hard seed coat prevents water and gas exchange. | Ber, Guava, Walnut |
| Dormancy Due to ABA | ABA inhibits seed germination. | Temperate fruits |
2. Methods to Break Seed Dormancy
| Method | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Scarification | Breaking/softening the seed coat. | – |
| – Mechanical | Physical breaking of seed coat. | Ber, Walnut, Peach |
| – Hot Water | Soaking seeds in hot water. | Guava, Strawberry |
| – Acid Treatment | Using Potassium Nitrate (KNO₃). | Potassium Nitrate (KNO₃) |
| Stratification | Subjecting seeds to chilling temperatures. | Apple, Pear, Peach, Apricot |
3. Seed Viability and Sowing
| Topic | Details | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Sowing Season | Best for tropical/subtropical fruits. | During monsoon |
| In-situ Sowing | Direct sowing in the field. | Walnut, Pecan, Jackfruit, Ber |
| Orthodox Seeds | Viable for a long time at low temperatures. | – |
| Recalcitrant Seeds | Cannot survive long at low temperatures. | Mango, Citrus, Litchi, Jackfruit, Avocado |
4. Chemical & Hormonal Treatments
| Treatment | Details | Concentration |
|---|---|---|
| Potassium Nitrate | Used to break dormancy. | 0-2% |
| Gibberellic Acid (GA) | Growth hormone for germination. | 100-500 ppm |
| Etheral | Used for dormancy breaking. | 500 ppm |
| Benzyl Adenine (BA) | Growth regulator. | 10-20 ppm |
5. Cryopreservation Techniques
| Method | Details | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Cryopreservation | Storing seeds in extreme cold conditions. | Liquid Nitrogen (-196°C) |
| Cryoprotectants | Protect seeds from freezing damage. | Glycerol, DMSO |
Propagation Methods in Horticulture
1. Natural Vegetative Propagation
| Method | Examples |
|---|---|
| Runners | Strawberry |
| Offsets | Date Palm |
| Suckers | Banana |
2. Artificial Vegetative Propagation
| Method | Details | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Layering | Best time: Feb-Mar, Jun-Jul. Uses IBA, IAA hormones. | – |
| – Tip Layering | Rooting of tips in soil. | Blackberries |
| – Serpentine Layering | Bending vine-like stems. | Muscadine Grape |
| – Trench Layering | Laying stems in trenches. | Walnut |
| – Air Layering (Gottee/Marcotting) | Layering without soil contact. | Litchi |
3. Cutting Propagation
| Type of Cutting | Examples | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Hardwood Cutting | Grape, Fig, Pomegranate | Done in November-February |
| Semi-Hardwood Cutting | Evergreen fruit plants | Done in June-July, Bottom heat technique |
| Root Cutting | Blackberries, Raspberries | – |
4. Grafting Techniques
| Type | Method | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Attached Grafting | – | – |
| – Inarching/Embracing | Joining rooted plant to scion. | Mango |
| – Tongue Grafting | Making interlocking cuts. | Apple, Pear, Walnut |
| Detached Grafting | – | – |
| – Veneer Grafting | Used for top-working trees. | Mango (March-Sept) |
5. Budding Techniques
| Type of Budding | Examples |
|---|---|
| T-budding (Shield Budding) | Roses, Citrus, Aonla |
| Patch Budding | – |
| Chip Budding | – |
| Ring Budding | – |
| Flute Budding | – |
| Forket Budding | Rubber |
Micropropagation and Tissue Culture
| Method | Details | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Callus Culture | Culturing plant cells. | – |
| Cell Culture | Growing cells in a lab. | – |
| Meristem Culture | Used for virus-free plants. | – |
| Organ Culture | Growing organs in a medium. | – |
| Protoplast Culture | Culturing plant protoplasts. | – |
Applications of Micropropagation
| Application | Examples |
|---|---|
| Tissue Culture | Banana |
| Micro Grafting | Citrus |
| Shoot Tips & Micro-Cuttings | Grapes |
Seed Trade and Quality Standards
| Topic | Details |
|---|---|
| India’s Rank in Seed Trade | 8th globally |
| Seed Quality Standards | – |
| – Pure Seed % | Above 98% |
| – Moisture Content | 6-8% |
| – Germination % | 60-70% |
Horticulture Sector Overview
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| GDP Contribution | 24.5% |
| ICAR Horticulture Division | Established in 1987 |
Arid Zone Fruits
| Fruit Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Arid Zone Fruits | Ber, Aonla, Pomegranate, Annona, Fig, Phalsa |
Propagation Structures
| Type | Details |
|---|---|
| Greenhouses | |
| a) Tunnel Type | A type of greenhouse that resembles a tunnel. |
| b) Ground to Ground Type | A greenhouse structure that extends from ground level. |
| c) Even Span or Gable Type | A greenhouse with a symmetrical roof structure, often used for better light distribution. |
| d) Quonset Type | A semi-circular greenhouse structure, providing good ventilation. |
| e) Ridge and Furrow Type | A multi-span greenhouse system that allows for efficient use of space. |
| Plastic Greenhouses | |
| a) Polythene Film | A type of plastic used for covering greenhouses. |
| b) PVC Film | A durable plastic covering material for greenhouses. |
| c) Polyester Film | A strong plastic film used in greenhouse construction. |
| d) Fiberglass | A material that provides excellent light diffusion and insulation in greenhouses. |
| Other Structures | |
| iii) Hot Beds | Heated beds used for starting seedlings earlier in the season. |
| iv) Lath Houses | Structures providing partial shade for plants, allowing for air circulation. |
| v) Mist Beds | Structures that maintain high humidity levels for propagation. |
| vi) Mist Chamber | A controlled environment for propagating plants through misting. |
| vii) Nursery Bed | A bed specifically prepared for raising young plants. |
| viii) Fluorescent Light Boxes | Boxes designed to provide supplemental lighting for plants. |
Systems of Planting
| System | Details |
|---|---|
| (A) Square System | – Simplest system of fruit planting. – Plants are arranged in squares with trees at each corner. – Allows for intercultural operations in both directions and promotes intercropping. |
| (B) Rectangular System | – Plot divided into rectangles. – Trees planted at corners in straight rows running at right angles. |
| (C) Triangular System | – Mostly used in High-Density Planting. – Trees planted at each corner of the triangle. |
| (D) Quincunx or Diagonal System | – Practiced commercially where spacing is more than 10 m. – Accommodates 50% more plants than the square system. |
| Filler Plants | – Generally used in the quincunx system. |
| (E) Hexagonal System | – Accommodates 15% more plants than the square system. – Difficult to layout. |
| (F) Contour System or Terrace System | – Suitable for hilly and undulated lands. – Reduces soil erosion and conserves soil moisture. – Double hedge row contour planting accommodates 22% more plants than the single hedge row contour planting. |
Training and Pruning
Training
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Definition | Involves staking, tying, or supporting a plant to give it a specific shape. Controls the shape of the plant. |
Types of Training
| Type | Details |
|---|---|
| (A) Central Leader/Pyramid System | – Main trunk grows uninterrupted. – First branch at 45-50 cm height, others at 15-20 cm apart. – Most suitable for Pear. – Drawback: Difficult to spray, prune, and harvest. |
| (B) Open Centre/Open Head System | – Main trunk is beheaded at 40-50 cm height. – 3-5 primary lateral branches develop from the trunk. – Uniform fruit distribution. – Not suitable for high altitudes with frost. – Practiced in American Plum and Peach. |
| (C) Modified Leader System | – Intermediate form of central leader and open centre. – Mostly used in Apple. – First trained as a central leader for 4-5 years, then headed back to 75-120 cm height from ground level. |
Pruning
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Definition | Removal of excess, undesirable, or unproductive branches, shoots, or other parts of the plant to allow for normal growth. Benefits: Improves fruit quality. |
Types of Pruning
| Type | Details |
|---|---|
| (a) Heading Back | Terminal portion of twigs, canes, or shoots is removed, stimulating development of the remaining part. |
| (b) Thinning Out | Entirely removes undesirable shoots or branches from the base or point of attachment. |
| (c) Ringing/Girdling | Circular ring of bark (about 3 cm in length) is removed. |
| (d) Notching | Wedge-shaped piece of bark is removed above a bud, checking hormone influence and encouraging growth. |
Propagation Structures
| Type | Details |
|---|---|
| Greenhouses | |
| a) Tunnel Type | Resembles a tunnel, commonly used for controlled environment cultivation. |
| b) Ground to Ground Type | Extends from ground level, suitable for various crops. |
| c) Even Span or Gable Type | Symmetrical roof design for better light distribution. |
| d) Quonset Type | Semi-circular structure, offers good ventilation and temperature control. |
| e) Ridge and Furrow Type | Multi-span system allowing for efficient space utilization. |
| Plastic Greenhouses | |
| a) Polythene Film | Cost-effective plastic covering material. |
| b) PVC Film | Durable covering for long-term use. |
| c) Polyester Film | High-strength material for greenhouse protection. |
| d) Fiberglass | Excellent light diffusion and insulation properties. |
| Other Structures | |
| Hot Beds | Heated beds for early seedling growth. |
| Lath Houses | Provides partial shade and air circulation. |
| Mist Beds | Maintains high humidity for propagation. |
| Mist Chamber | Controlled misting environment for plant growth. |
| Nursery Bed | Specially prepared bed for raising young plants. |
| Fluorescent Light Boxes | Provides supplemental lighting for controlled plant growth. |
Systems of Planting
| System | Details |
|---|---|
| (A) Square System | Simplest method, trees arranged in squares for easy intercultural operations and intercropping. |
| (B) Rectangular System | Trees planted in straight rows at right angles. |
| (C) Triangular System | Used in High Density Planting, trees planted at triangle corners. |
| (D) Quincunx or Diagonal System | Suitable for large spacing (>10m), accommodates 50% more plants than the square system. |
| (E) Hexagonal System | Accommodates 15% more plants than the square system, but complex to layout. |
| (F) Contour System or Terrace System | Best for hilly terrain, reduces soil erosion and conserves moisture. Double hedge row contour planting increases plant density by 22%. |
Training and Pruning
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Training | Supports plants for proper growth and shape. |
| (A) Central Leader/Pyramid System | Main trunk grows uninterrupted, used in pears. |
| (B) Open Centre/Open Head System | Main trunk beheaded at 40-50 cm height, used in peaches and plums. |
| (C) Modified Leader System | Used in apples, combines central leader and open center methods. |
| Pruning | Removes excess or unproductive branches to improve fruit quality. |
| (a) Heading Back | Stimulates growth by removing the terminal portion of shoots. |
| (b) Thinning Out | Removes unwanted branches from the base. |
| (c) Ringing/Girdling | Removing a circular strip of bark to enhance fruit setting. |
| (d) Notching | Removing a wedge-shaped bark piece above a bud to promote growth. |
Types of Nurseries
| Classification | Type | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Based on Irrigation | Dry Nursery | Operates without irrigation. |
| Wet Nursery | Requires continuous irrigation. | |
| Based on Size | Commercial Nursery | Large-scale nursery for profit. |
| Small Scale Nursery | Produces plants for local needs. | |
| Based on Plant Type | Fruit Nursery | Grows fruit trees and plants. |
| Vegetable Nursery | Produces vegetable seedlings. | |
| Flowering Plant Nursery | Specializes in ornamental flowers. | |
| Forest Nursery | Grows trees for reforestation. |
Irrigation Methods in Nurseries
| Method | Details |
|---|---|
| Flow or Flood Irrigation | Water applied directly over the soil. |
| Furrow Irrigation | Water flows through small channels in the field. |
| Overhead Irrigation | Water is applied via sprinklers, rose cans, or automizers. |
Water Quality and Requirements
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| pH Level | Should be between 5.5 – 7.5. |
| Salt Content | Should be below 400 ppm for optimal growth. |
| Water Requirement | 20-30 cc/plant/day in summer, 10 cc/plant/day in winter. |
Miscellaneous Horticultural Information
| Topic | Details |
|---|---|
| Defoliation | Causes maleness in plants. |
| Defloration | Causes femaleness in plants. |
| Agro Climatic Zones | ICAR recognizes 8 zones, Planning Commission recognizes 15, NBBS & LUP (Nagpur) recognizes 21 zones. |
| Growing Periods | Arid Zone: 90 days, Semi-arid: 90-150 days, Humid: 210-270 days. |
| Optimal Temperature | Most fruits/vegetables grow best at 22-27°C. |
| Humidity Effects | High humidity leads to diseases like apple scab and brown rot in peaches. |
| Soil pH | Saline soils: 7.0-8.5, Alkaline soils: 8.6-10.0. |
| Brinjal Variety | BH-2 is suitable for making Bharta. |
| Nutritional Value | Jowar has maximum minerals and energy. |
| Trap Crops | Marigold is a trap crop for tomato (16:1 ratio). |
| Drip Irrigation Usage | 54% of global drip irrigation is used in citrus orchards. |
| Breeding Method | The pedigree method is the most widely used in India. |
Isolation Distances in Seed Production
| Sr. No. | Crop | Foundation Seed (m) | Certified Seed (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Tomato | 50 | 25 |
| 2 | Brinjal | 200 | 100 |
| 3 | Chilli | 400 | 200 |
| 4 | Sweet Pepper | 400 | 200 |
| 5 | Okra | 400 | 200 |
| 6 | Pea | 20 | 40 |
| 7 | Other Beans | 50 | 25 |
| 8 | Cole Crops | 1600 | 1000 |
| 9 | Radish | 1600 | 1000 |
| 10 | Turnip | 1600 | 1000 |
| 11 | Carrot | 1000 | 800 |
| 12 | Potato | 5 | – |
| 13 | Onion | 1600 | 1000 |
| 14 | Beet | 1600 | 1000 |
| 15 | Cucurbits | 800 | 400 |
| 16 | Chrysanthemum | 400 | – |
| 17 | Marigold | 400 | – |
Growth Regulators in Horticulture
| Trade Name | Active Ingredient | Common Name | Commercial Uses |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ethepon, Ethrel | 2-Chloroethyl phosphonic acid | 6-Benzyl adenine | Fruit ripening, sugarcane ripener, latex flow enhancer, sex changer |
| Plantgard | 2,4-D (low concentration) | 2,4-D | Fruit drop control, root inducer, fruit set enhancer |
| Cycocel, Lihocin | (2-Chloroethyl) trimethyl ammonium chloride | Chloromequat (CCC) | Lodging reducer, pigment formation, branching inducer |
| MH-30, Sprout Stop | 1,2-Dihydro-3,6-pyridazinedione | Maleic Hydrazide (MH) | Sucker and sprout control, growth retardant |
| GA3, Progibb | Gibberellic acid | Gibberellin | Germination enhancer, post-harvest life extender, fruit size enhancer |
| SARODEX, Rapid Root | Indole butyric acid (IBA) | IBA | Root induction |
| Chamatkar, White Gold | Mepiquat chloride (MC) | MC | Pod and fruit set enhancer in cotton, groundnut, pigeon pea |
| Round Up | Phosphonomethyl glycine (low concentration) | Glyphosate | Sugarcane ripener, desiccant |
Soils in India
| Soil Type | Characteristics |
|---|---|
| Red Soil (Alfisols) | Rich in Fe, Mn; poor in N, K; high phosphorus fixation |
| Laterite Soil (Ultisols) | Similar to red soil |
| Acidic Soil (Oxisols) | Rich in Al, Mn, sesquioxides; high phosphorus fixation |
| Black Soil (Vertisols) | Contains montmorillonite clay; prone to cracking; Zn deficiency |
| Alluvial Soil (Entisols) | Highly fertile; found in newly formed soils |
| Low pH Soil (Acidic) | Leaf bronzing due to Al toxicity; rock phosphate recommended |
Problematic Soils & Control Measures
| Soil Type | Characteristics | Control Measures |
|---|---|---|
| Acid Soil | 30% of cultivated soil; Ca, Mg, K deficiency; Al, Mn toxicity | Lime application |
| Alkali Soil | ESP > 15%; pH: 8.6-10; Fe, Zn, P, Mn deficiency; Na, B toxicity | Gypsum, Calcium Chloride, Phosphogypsum |
| Saline Soil | ESP 15%; pH: 7-8.5; Ca, K deficiency; Na, Cl toxicity | Gypsum application |
| Saline-Alkaline Soil | ESP > 15%; pH: 8.5; EC > 4 dS/m | Gypsum application |
Types of Parthenocarpy & Examples
| Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Natural Parthenocarpy | Seedless fruit due to genetic sterility | Banana, Pineapple |
| Facultative Parthenocarpy | Seedless fruit due to environmental factors | Grape, Watermelon, Cucumber, Tomato |
| Vegetative Parthenocarpy | Natural parthenocarpy without external stimulation | Apple |
| Stimulative Parthenocarpy | Fruit requires external pollination | Black Corinth Grape, Watermelon |
| Stenospermocarpy | Pollination & fertilization occur, but embryo aborts | Thompson Seedless Grape, Watermelon |
Hydroponics: Soil-Less Cultivation System
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Definition | Growing plants without soil using inert mediums and nutrient solutions. |
| Origin of Term | Derived from Greek words: “hydro” (water) and “ponos” (labor). |
| Father of Hydroponics | Dr. William F. Gericke |
| Introduction in India | First introduced at Kalimpong, Darjeeling. |
| Methods | 1. Water culture 2. Drip culture 3. Gravel culture |
| Leading Area | California has the maximum area under hydroponics globally. |
| First Crop Raised | Tomato |
| Suitable Fruit Crops | Strawberry, Raspberry |
| Optimum pH for Solution | 5.2 to 6.5 |
| Nutrient Replacement Interval | Every 4-6 days |
| Commercial Media Used | 1. Peat – Partially decomposed aquatic vegetation 2. Vermiculite – Micaceous mineral 3. Perlite – Siliceous mineral from volcanic regions 4. Coco coir – Fiber from coconut husk |
Organic Farming: Sustainable Agricultural Practices
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Origin of Term | First used by Northbourne (1940) in his book “Look to the Land.” |
| Leading Country | Australia |
| Leading State in India | Sikkim |
| Methods | 1. Biodynamic farming 2. Nature farming |
| Father of Biodynamic Farming | Rudolf Steiner |
| Organic Production Standards | Produced as per National Standard for Organic Production (NSOP). |
| Apex Body for Certification | National Accreditation Body (NAB) |
| National Centre for Organic Farming | Located in Ghaziabad, U.P. |
| National Project Start Year | 2004 |
| APOP Location | Bangalore |
| GAP | Good Agricultural Practices |
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