Agronomy Notes For IBPS AFO NABARD

Agronomy notes is a vital for candidates preparing for the IBPS Agriculture Field Officer (AFO) and NABARD exams. It deals with the science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fiber, and land reclamation.

Category	Details
Agriculture	Derived from Latin: “ager/agri” (soil) + “cultra” (cultivation)
	Encompasses: crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, forestry
	Defined as: art, science, and business of producing crops/livestock for human use
	Involves cultivation of land for food and other needs
	Influenced by: controllable factors (soil, irrigation) and uncontrollable factors (climate)
Agronomy	Derived from Greek: “Agros” (field) + “nomos” (to manage)
	Focuses on: soil, water, and crop management
	Aims to create favorable environments for higher productivity
Importance of Basic Sciences	Basic science: studies principles; Applied science: practical application
	Agricultural sciences depend on: Botany, Physiology, Biochemistry, Ecology, Zoology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Economics
Examples	– Botany: plant breeding and genetics
	– Zoology: identifies insect pests
	– Soil Chemistry: assesses nutrient status
	– Physics: understands weather/soil conditions
	– Mathematics: aids in research/statistics
	– Economics: estimates costs/returns
Scope of Agronomy	Dynamic discipline adapting to new knowledge and environmental understanding
	Requires intensive cropping due to population growth
	New technologies for moisture stress management
	Agronomic practices include: soil fertility restoration, seed bed preparation, proper seed rates, sowing dates, moisture management, weed control
Relation to Other Sciences	Integrates: soil science, agricultural chemistry, crop physiology, plant ecology, biochemistry, economics
	Understanding soil properties and crop physiology is crucial
	Economic analysis aids in production efficiency
Role of Agronomist	Aims for maximum production at minimum cost
	Utilizes knowledge from basic and applied sciences
	Tests and adapts research findings in the field
	Coordinates various agricultural disciplines

National Research Institutes

Category	Details
National Research Institutes
CAZRI	Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
CFTRI	Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, Karnataka
CICR	Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, Maharashtra
CPRI	Central Potato Research Institute, Simla, H.P.
CRIJAF	Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore, W.B.
CIAE	Central Institute of Agriculture Engineering, Bhopal, M.P.
CPCRI	Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasargod, Kerala
CRIDA	Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, A.P.
CRRI	Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Orissa
CSWCRTI	Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Dehradun, U.P.
CTCRI	Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
CSSRI	Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana
CTRI	Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry, A.P.
DOR	Directorate of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad, A.P.
DRR	Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, A.P.
DWR	Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal, Haryana
DWMR	Directorate of Water Management Research Institute, Jhansi, U.P.
FRI	Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, U.P.
IARI	Indian Agriculture Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi
IGFARI	Indian Grassland, Fodder and Agroforestry Research Institute, Jhansi, U.P.
IISR	Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, U.P.
IISS	Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, M.P.
IIPR	Indian Institute of Pulse Research, Kanpur, U.P.
IIHR	Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, Karnataka
ILRI	Indian Lac Research Institute, Ranchi, Bihar
JTRL	Jute Technological Research Laboratory, Kolkata, W.B.
NCMRT	National Centre for Mushroom Research and Training, Solan, H.P.
NRCG	National Research Centre for Groundnut, Junagadh, Gujarat
NRCS	National Research Centre for Sorghum, Hyderabad, A.P.
NRC for Soybean	Indore, M.P.
NRC for Spices	Calicut, Kerala
NRC for Cashew	Pattur, Karnataka
NRC for Citrus	Nagpur, Maharashtra
NRC for Rapeseed and Mustard	Bharatpur, Rajasthan
NRC for Oil Palm	Pedavegi, Andhra Pradesh
NCWS	National Centre for Weed Science, Jabalpur, M.P.
NBPGR	National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi
NAARM	National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad
NBSSLUP	National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur, Maharashtra
NPPTI	National Plant Protection Training Institute, Hyderabad, A.P.
PDCSR	Project Directorate for Cropping Systems Research, Meerut, U.P.
SBI	Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

 

International Research Institutes	Details
CGIAR	Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C.
CIFOR	Centre for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia
CIAT	Centre International de Agricultural Tropical, Cali, Colombia
CIMMYT	Centre International de la Mejoramientode Maizy Trigo, Mexico
CIP	Centre International de la Papa (International Potato Centre), Lima, Peru
IBPGR	International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, Rome, Italy
ICARDA	International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo, Syria
ICRAF	International Centre for Research in Agro-Forestry, Nairobi, Kenya
ICRISAT	International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics, Hyderabad, India
IFPRI	International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, U.S.A.
IITA	International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria
IIMI	International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka
ILRI	International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
IRRI	International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines
ISNAR	International Service for National Agricultural Research, The Hague, Netherlands
WARDA	West Africa Rice Development Association, Ivory Coast, West Africa

Agronomy Notes Important Events in Agriculture

Important Events in Agriculture in India	Year	Event
	1788	First attempt at cotton crop improvement in Bombay province
	1827	First agricultural society at Calcutta
	1864	First model agricultural farm at Saidapet, Tamil Nadu
	1871	Department of Agriculture created
	1878	Higher Education in Agriculture at Coimbatore
	1880	First Report of Famine Commission (Famine during 1876-77)
	1893	Second report of Famine Commission
	1901	Third report of Famine Commission; First Irrigation Commission
	1902	Introduction of large scale cultivation of groundnut
	1903	Imperial Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa, Bihar
	1904	Introduction of Cambodia cotton
	1912	Imperial Sugarcane Breeding Station at Coimbatore
	1926	Royal Commission on Agriculture
	1929	Imperial (Indian) Council of Agricultural Research at Delhi
	1936	IARI shifted to Delhi
	1942	Grow More Food Campaign
	1946	Central Rice Research Institute
	1947	Fertilisers and Chemicals, Travancore
	1956	Project for Intensification of Regional Research
	1960	Intensive Agriculture District Programme (IADP)
	1963	National Seed Corporation
	1965	Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (IIAP); National Demonstration Programme
	1966	HYV Programme; Multiple Cropping Schemes
	1970	Drought Prone Area Programme
	1971	All India Coordinated Project for Dryland Agriculture
	1972	Establishment of ICRISAT
	1973	Minikit Trails Programme
	1974	Command Area Development
	1975	Release of first cotton hybrid in India
	1976	Report of National Commission on Agriculture; Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
	1977	Training and Visit (T&V) System
	1979	National Agriculture Research Project (NARP)
	1982	National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
	1986	Establishment of Technology Mission on Oilseeds
	1993	Release of First rice hybrid in India
	1998	National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)

 

Agencies Involved in Agricultural Research	Types
ICAR	Coordinating agricultural activity between states and center; financing research problems
	Maintaining National Research Centers and Institutes
	Agricultural research carried out by:
	– ICAR research centers
	– SAUs (State Agricultural Universities)
	– State Government Research Centers
	– Private agencies

Agro-Climatic Zone

Agro-Climatic Zone	Characteristics
1. Western Himalayan Region	Steep slopes, skeletal soils, main crops: rice, maize, wheat, barley; high forest cover (45.3%).
2. Eastern Himalayan Region	High rainfall, shifting cultivation (Jhum), needs input supply and marketing support.
3. Lower Gangetic Plains	Major rice producer (12%), flood-prone, emerging crops: sesame, jute, potato; high population density.
4. Middle Gangetic Plains	Diverse cropping, rice is principal crop; needs zinc intervention; high irrigation in 30% area.
5. Upper Gangetic Plains	High cropping intensity (144%), relies on canals and tube wells; low milk production.
6. Trans-Gangetic Plains	Highest irrigated area, rice-wheat system, needs diversification in cropping.
7. Eastern Plateau and Hills	Shallow soils, significant rice area, needs integrated watershed management.
8. Central Plateau and Hills	Low irrigation and cropping intensity; majority rainfed; need for watershed management.
9. Western Plateau and Hills	Major crops: sorghum, cotton; significant fruit cultivation; adopting modern irrigation methods.
10. Southern Plateau and Hills	Semi-arid zone, low cropping intensity; emphasis on dryland technology and crop diversification.
11. East Coast Plains and Hills	Rice and groundnut dominant; need for irrigation and drainage management; significant waste lands.
12. West Coast Plains and Ghats	Important for plantation crops; need for diversification and infrastructure for marketing.
13. Gujarat Plains and Hills	Arid conditions, low irrigation; focus on rainwater harvesting and dry farming practices.
14. Western Dry Region	Characterized by desert, low rainfall; relies on pearl millet; needs tree cover for desertification control.
15. Islands Region	Equatorial climate, high rainfall, coconut as major crop; small zone with high literacy and low poverty.

Tillage

Topic	Details
Tillage	Physical manipulation of soil to create a favorable seedbed for crop growth.
Tilth	The physical condition of the soil resulting from tillage.

Characteristics of Good Tilth

Characteristic	Description
Mellow and Friable	Soil should be crumbly and adequately aerated.
Porosity	Balance of capillary and non-capillary pores for air and water movement.
Aggregate Size	Larger aggregates (>5 mm) for irrigated agriculture; smaller aggregates (1-2 mm) for dryland agriculture.
Texture Suitability	Coarse tilth for heavy soils; fine tilth for sandy soils.
Avoiding Caking	Very fine tilth can lead to caked surfaces, preventing water absorption.

Objectives of Tillage

Objective	Description
Seedbed Preparation	Create a satisfactory seedbed.
Loosening Soil	Loosen and aerate the soil.
Weed Control	Control weeds and remove stubbles.
Pest Exposure	Expose pests and pathogens to sunlight.
Hardpan Breaking	Break hardpans and improve soil depth.
Organic Matter Incorporation	Incorporate organic manures.
Soil Warming	Warm the soil and increase infiltration rates.

Effects of Tillage on Soil Properties

Property	Effect of Tillage
Soil Structure	Improves crumbly and granular nature; optimal moisture level is crucial.
Soil Texture	No effect on soil texture; proportions of sand, silt, and clay remain unchanged.
Pore Space	Increases pore space; good tilth balances capillary and non-capillary pores.
Bulk Density	Loosening reduces bulk density; tilled soil has lower density than untilled.
Particle Density	Not altered by tillage; always higher than bulk density.
Soil Color	Organic matter affects color; tillage promotes oxidation, leading to color fading.

Key Points on Soil Properties

Property	Details
Optimal Aggregate Size	1-5 mm promotes good crop growth.
Bulk Density	Varies with soil type; clay soils have lower density compared to sandy soils.

Tillage Operations

Type of Tillage	Description
Preparatory Cultivation	Carried out before sowing the crop.
After Cultivation	Practiced after sowing the crop.

 

Category	Examples
Primary Tillage	Ploughing
Secondary Tillage	Harrowing
Seed Bed Preparation	Country plough

Factors Influencing Preparatory Tillage

Factor	Description
Previous Crop	Influence of stubble; deep-rooted crops (e.g., redgram, cotton) require deep tillage.
Crop to be Grown	Different crops require different tilth (e.g., rough tilth for sorghum, fine for tobacco).
Types of Soil	Clay soils require specific moisture levels; light soils are more versatile in moisture range.
Climate	Deep tillage is not suitable in low rainfall areas; possible in high rainfall areas.
Type of Farming	Intensive cropping demands intensive tillage practices.

Intercultivation Objectives

Objective	Description
Weed Destruction	Destroying weeds between crop rows.
Soil Mulch Formation	Creating a mulch to retain soil moisture.
Prevent Soil Cracking	Preventing soil from cracking and crusting.

 

Timing	Details
Start	Begins 2-3 weeks after sowing.
Short Duration Crops	Require 2-3 intercultivations.
Long Duration Crops	Require 3-4 intercultivations.

After Cultivation Practices

Practice	Description
Thinning and Gap Filling	Removing excess plants for spacing.
Rogueing	Removal of undesirable plants.
Earthing Up	Mounding soil around base of crops.
Desuckering (Banana)	Removing excess shoots from banana.
Wrapping (Sugarcane)	Supporting the plant structure.
Nipping (Castor)	Pinching off tops to encourage growth.
Defoliation (Cotton)	Removal of leaves to promote yield.
Hand Pollination (Sunflower)	Assisting in crop pollination.

Puddling in Rice Cultivation

Process	Description
Purpose	Creates an impervious layer to reduce water loss.
Method	Ploughing in standing water until soil is muddy.

 

Steps	Details
Water Application	Initial 5-10 cm water to saturate the soil.
Ploughing Sequence	Multiple ploughing with water applied after intervals.
Final Assessment	Checking for thorough puddling by pressing mud.

Puddling Implement Types

Implement Type	Description
Wetland Plough	Commonly used for puddling, churns soil effectively.
Animal-Drawn Implements	Used in problem soils; difficult if bulk density < 1.0.
Manual Puddling	Necessary in very soft soils; performed by labor.
Tractor-Drawn Implements	Cage wheels prevent sinking during puddling.

 

Soil Properties	Notes
Bulk Density	Less than 1.0 is problematic for puddling.
Green Manure Application	Incorporated during puddling for soil health.

Prerequisites for Sowing

Requirement	Description
Good Tilth	Proper soil condition for planting.
Optimum Soil Moisture	Adequate moisture at sowing depth.
Manures and Fertilizers	Necessary nutrients for plant growth.

Seed Science 

Type	Examples
Seeds	Grains used for sowing.
Veg Propagules	Stem cuttings, rooted slips, tubers, rhizomes.

 

Propagule Type	Examples
Stem Cuttings	Sugarcane, rose
Rooted Slips	Forage crops
Tubers	Potato
Rhizomes	Turmeric

Characteristics of Seed Material

Characteristic	Description
Purity	Free from rogues, other crop seeds, weed seeds, inert material.
Maturity	Fully matured and well-developed seeds.
Storage Pest-Free	Free from storage pests and seed-borne diseases.
Dormancy-Free	Free from dormancy issues (e.g., groundnut, rice).
Viability	Seeds must be viable; e.g., soybean loses viability quickly.
Germination Percentage	High germination percentage (98-99%); grasses may be 20-25%.

Methods of Sowing

Method	Description
Direct Seeding	Sowing seeds directly into the soil.
Transplanting	Transplanting seedlings to the field.

 

Specific Techniques	Description
Broadcasting	Evenly spreading seeds over the surface.
Line Sowing	Planting in rows for better organization.
Drilling	Planting seeds at a precise depth using a drill.
Dibbling	Planting seeds or propagules in holes.

 Time of Sowing

Timing	Details
Early Sowing	May not be advantageous (e.g., rainfed groundnut).
Delayed Sowing	Reduces yields (e.g., rainfed sorghum after June).
Advancing Sowing	Rabi sorghum yields increase by early sowing.
Optimum Timing	Increases yields due to suitable environment.

 

Crop Type	Optimum Sowing Time
Kharif Crop	June or July
Rabi Crop	Last week of October to first week of November
Summer Crop	First fortnight of January

Depth of Sowing

Aspect	Details
Importance	Uneven depth leads to uneven crop stands.
Thumb Rule	Sow seeds to a depth of 3-4 times their diameter.
Optimum Depth Range	Most field crops: 3-5 cm.

 

Seed Type	Depth of Sowing
Small Seeds	3-5 cm (e.g., sesame, finger millet).
Very Small Seeds	1 cm (e.g., tobacco).
Bold Seeds	6-7 cm (e.g., castor, groundnut, cotton, maize).

Seed Rate for Different Crops

Crop	Seed Rate (Kg/ha or Tons/ha)
Tobacco	30 g/ha
Mustard	2-3 Kg/ha
Pulses	10-12 Kg/ha
Soybean	80-100 Kg/ha
Groundnut	100-120 Kg/ha
Forage Grasses	2-3 tons/ha
Potato Tubers	5-7 tons/ha
Sugarcane (sets)	7 tons/ha

Planting Geometry and Competition

Aspect	Description
Competition	Struggle between individuals for available resources when supply is below combined demand.

 

Types of Competition	Description
1. Nutrient Competition	Increased plant population can lead to nutrient deficiency due to higher uptake competition.
2. Light Competition	Occurs when one plant shades another, affecting photosynthesis as plants grow.
3. Water Competition	Depends on a plant’s ability to utilize available soil water.
4. Intra-specific Competition	Competition within a species (similar genotypes).
5. Inter-specific Competition	Competition between different species (e.g., with weeds present).

Plant Population and Growth

Impact of Plant Density	Description
Height Increase	Higher density can increase plant height due to light competition.
Height Decrease	Moderate increases in density may decrease height due to competition for water and nutrients.
Leaf Orientation	Under high density, leaves become erect and narrow, improving light capture.

Plant Population and Yield

Yield Impact	Description
Yield Reduction	High plant density can reduce yield per plant due to fewer ears or panicles produced.
Example	Redgram produces ~20 pods at 3.33 lakh plants/ha vs. >100 pods at 50,000 plants/ha.

Optimum Plant Population

Crop Example	Optimum Population	Description
Redgram	55,000 plants/ha (monsoon)	Size varies based on season; higher density in winter.
Sorghum	2 lakh plants/ha (favorable)	4 lakh plants/ha (unfavorable conditions).

Planting Patterns

Type	Description
Square Planting	Efficient for light, water, and nutrient utilization; allows intercultivation (e.g., Tobacco).
Rectangular Planting	Standard practice using seed drill; facilitates intercultivation; common for many crops.
Miscellaneous Patterns	Includes paired row planting or transplanting for increased plant density and weed control.

 

Planting Arrangement	Description
Square Planting	Effective for light and nutrient utilization; beneficial for some crops but not all.
Rectangular Planting	Common for ease of cultivation; emphasizes wider inter-row and closer intra-row spacing.
Paired Row Planting	Skipping alternate rows to adjust population density; often used for intercrops.

Soil Fertility vs. Soil Productivity

Aspect	Soil Fertility	Soil Productivity
Definition	Inherent capacity to supply nutrients	Capacity to produce crops
Importance	Index of available nutrients	Indicates crop yields
Factors Influencing	Nutrient availability	Interaction of multiple factors (water, soil structure)
Analysis Method	Can be analyzed in the laboratory	Assessed in the field under specific conditions
Status	Potential nutrient status	Resultant of various soil management factors

Factors Influencing Soil Productivity

Factor	Description
1. Soil Fertility	Availability of nutrients for crops
2. Physical Condition	Depth, structure, and texture of the soil
3. Microbial Activity	Activity of soil microorganisms
4. Soil Moisture	Adequate moisture levels in soil
5. Inhibitory Factors	Acidity, alkalinity, salinity, waterlogging, etc.

Fertility Losses

Loss Mechanism	Description
1. Crop Removal	Nutrient uptake by crops (e.g., Rice, Wheat, Sorghum)
2. Weed Removal	Nutrient uptake by weeds
3. Leaching Losses	Nutrient loss through leaching (more in sandy soils)
4. Erosion	Soil and nutrient loss through erosion
5. Gaseous Losses	Nitrogen loss via denitrification and volatilization

Nutrient Removal by Crops (kg/ha)

Crop	Nitrogen (N)	Phosphorus (P)	Potassium (K)
Rice	90-100	20-25	130-150
Wheat	150-200	80-100	200-300
Sorghum	50-60	20-25	80-100
Maize	100-120	40-50	100-120

Maintaining Soil Fertility

Method	Description
Cultural Practices	Fallowing, crop rotation, mixed cropping
Material Addition	Organic manures, inorganic fertilizers, bio-fertilizers
Soil Amendments	Lime, gypsum, paddy husk, groundnut shells
Weedicides/Fungicides	Copper fungicides, Triazines
Green Manuring	Use of green manures or green leaf manuring
Crop Residues	Incorporating stubbles and residues

Soil Organic Matter

Definition	Description
Organic Matter	Material of plant or animal origin in the soil
Humus	Decomposed organic matter that is stable and dark in color

Uses of Organic Matter

Use	Description
1. Soil Structure	Improves aggregation, permeability, and aeration
2. Nutrient Reservoir	Serves as a reservoir for plant nutrients
3. Mineral Dissolution	Helps dissolve minerals like P and K
4. pH Maintenance	Assists in maintaining soil pH
5. Cation Exchange	Prevents leaching of cations due to higher CEC
6. Energy Source	Provides energy for microorganisms and soil life
7. Soil Temperature	Helps maintain soil temperature
8. Reduces Alkalinity	Alleviates soil alkalinity

Factors Affecting Organic Matter Decomposition

Factor	Description
1. Soil Moisture	Availability of moisture for microbial activity
2. Soil Temperature	Warmer temperatures enhance decomposition rates
3. Soil Aeration	Adequate aeration is necessary for microbial activity
4. C Ratio	Ratio of carbon to nitrogen in the organic material affects decomposition speed

WEED SCIENCE NOTES

Topic	Details
Definition of Weed	– Plant growing where not wanted
	– Unwanted plant with negative value
	– Interferes with intended land use
	– Grows alongside desired plants
Losses Due to Weeds	– Compete for light, moisture, nutrients
	– Accounts for 45% agricultural losses in India
	– Increase cost of cultivation
	– Hosts for pests/diseases (e.g., rice stem borer)
	– Reduce quality of produce (e.g., Cuscuta)
	– Cause human health issues (e.g., allergies)
	– Cause animal health problems (e.g., Lantana)
	– Contaminate water sources
	– Reduce land value
Benefits from Weeds	– Source of new genes
	– Fodder value (e.g., Cynodon dactylon)
	– Used as leafy vegetables (e.g., Amaranths)
	– Green manures (e.g., Tephrosia)
	– Medicinal value (e.g., Phyllanthus for jaundice)
Critical Period of Weed Control	– First 1/3 of crop life cycle needs weed-free environment
Bioherbicides	– Use of pathogens for weed control
	– Examples include fungal control of specific weeds
Herbicides	– First used: Dinozeb in 1933, 2,4-D in 1946
	– Types: Inorganic (e.g., CuSO4) and Organic (e.g., 2,4-D)
	– Modes: Selective and Non-selective
	– Formulations: WP, SP, EC, GR, etc.
	– Application methods: Foliage, direct spray, etc.
Challenges in Herbicide Use	– Labor-intensive farming practices
	– Limited effectiveness in rainfed areas
	– Lack of awareness
	– Intercropping limitations
	– Small landholdings

Irrigation Notes 

Topic	Details
Irrigation Definition	Artificial application of water to supplement rainfall and groundwater.
Objectives/Importance	1. Supply moisture for plant growth.
	2. Utilize production factors effectively.
	3. Insure crops against drought.
	4. Wash out soluble salts.
	5. Soften tillage pans.
	6. Enable intensive cropping.
	7. Facilitate timely sowing.
	8. Create favorable microclimate.
	9. Increase yields and stability.
Methods of Irrigation	– Surface: Flooding, boarder strip, corrugations, check basin, ridge/furrow, ring/basin.
	– Sub-surface, Sprinkler, Drip/trickle.
Quantity of Water	Depends on rooting depth and soil water holding capacity.
Measurement Tools	Weirs, flumes, orifices, water meters, etc.
Drainage Definition	Removal of excess water to improve plant growth conditions.
Causes of Water Logging	Intensive rains, floods, soil slope, bunds, defective irrigation, seepage.
Effects of Poor Drainage	Soil compaction, restricted root growth, salinity increase, lodging issues.
Importance of Drainage	Soil ventilation, timely tillage, healthy root growth, microorganism activity.
	Optimal soil temperature, leaching, erosion prevention, structural improvement.
	Improved sanitary conditions and rural livelihoods.

Cropping Pattern 

Topic	Details
Cropping Pattern	Proportion of area under various crops at a specific time; indicates yearly sequence and spatial arrangement.
Cropping System	Order of crops cultivated on a piece of land over a fixed period.
Monocropping	Growing one crop year after year (e.g., Rice-Rice, Groundnut in Anantapur).
Disadvantages	– Improper use of moisture and nutrients.
	– Pest and weed control becomes challenging.
Crop Rotation	Growing different crops in succession to maximize profit and maintain soil fertility.
Principles of Crop Rotation	1. Alternate tap-root and fibrous-root crops.
	2. Follow leguminous crops after non-leguminous.
	3. More exhaustive crops followed by less exhaustive.
	4. Demand-based crop selection.
	5. Problem-based crop selection.
	6. Avoid successive crops from the same family.
	7. Ideal rotations maximize employment and equipment use.
Multiple Cropping	Growing two or more crops in one year on the same land.
Intercropping	Growing two or more crops simultaneously with a definite row pattern (e.g., Setaria + Redgram).
Mixed Cropping	Growing multiple crops together, often in areas with climatic hazards.
Sequence Cropping	Growing crops in succession throughout the year (e.g., double, triple cropping).
Relay Cropping	Successive planting where one crop hands over to the next (e.g., Maize → Potato → Wheat).
Overlapping System	Succeeding crop sown while the previous is still growing (e.g., Maize + Potato).
Ratoon Cropping	Raising a crop from regrowth after harvesting (e.g., Sugarcane).
Multi-Storeyed System	Growing plants of different heights in the same field (e.g., Coconut, Banana, Pineapple).

 

Difference: Intercropping vs. Mixed Cropping	Intercropping	Mixed Cropping
Objective	Utilize space between rows of the main crop.	Ensure at least one crop survives climatic hazards.
Emphasis	Main crop prioritized; no competition with subsidiary.	Equal care for all crops; all compete with each other.
Crop Duration	Subsidiary crops are short-duration, harvested early.	Crops are of similar duration.
Sowing Method	Crops sown in rows; main crop may be sown earlier.	Crops may be broadcasted; same sowing time for all.

Maturity Symptoms of crops

Definition	Details
Harvesting	Removal of entire plants or economic parts after maturity from the field.
Stubble	Portion of the stem left on the field.
Economic Product	Grain, seed, leaf, root, or entire plant.
Physiological Maturity	Stage after which no further increase in dry matter occurs in the economic part.
Harvest Maturity	Occurs generally seven days after physiological maturity; involves loss of moisture.

 

Physiological Maturity Symptoms	Crop	Symptoms
	Maize	Black layer in the placental region of kernels.
	Sorghum	Black layer in the placental region of kernels.
	Soybean	Loss of green color from leaves.
	Red gram	Green pods turning brown.

 

Harvest Maturity Symptoms	Crop	Symptoms
	Rice	Hard & yellow-colored grains.
	Wheat	Yellowing of spikelets.
	Sorghum	Yellow-colored ears, hard grains.
	Pearl millet	Compact ears; hard seeds come out when pressed.
	Pulses	Brown pods with hard seeds inside.
	Groundnut	Pods turn dark; dark patches inside shell; oil on kernels.
	Sugarcane	Yellow leaves; sucrose content > 10%; brix > 18%.
	Tobacco	Slightly yellow leaves.

 

Criteria for Harvesting	Crop	Criteria
	Rice	32 days after flowering; moisture < 20%; 80% straw colored.
	Sorghum	40 days after flowering; moisture < 28%.
	Maize	25-30 days after tasseling; moisture < 22-25%; husk pale brown.
	Sugarcane	Brix ratio between top and bottom part nearly one.
	Redgram	35-40 days after flowering; 80-85% pods brown.

 

Crop	Harvesting Stage	Harvesting Method	Post-Harvest Processing
Rice	At physiological maturity (80% ripe)	Hand-harvesting with sickles	Sheaves dried for 2 days, then bundled and transported
		Threshing by beating, trampling, tractor, or mechanical means	Winnowing (manual or power-operated), drying to 8-10% moisture
			Bagging for storage (mud bins, straw bins, RCC bins)
			Parboiling: soaking, steaming, drying to improve quality

 

Symptoms	Rice	Cooking Quality	Parboiling Steps
	Hard & yellow grains	Non-sticky if amylose content is 37%, protein content 10%	1. Soaking
	Yellowing of spikelets		2. Steaming
			3. Drying to 18-20% moisture, then down to 14-16%

 

Crop	Harvesting Stage	Harvesting Method	Post-Harvest Processing
Maize	Cobs at 25-30% moisture	Shelling by beating, cattle, tractor, or shellers	Dry grains to 10-12% moisture for storage
			For popcorn, harvest at 30-35% moisture

 

Crop	Harvesting Stage	Harvesting Method	Post-Harvest Processing
Groundnut	Early harvest leads to immature pods	Soil digging with country plough to lift plants	Upside down in heaps for 2-3 days, then pods stripped
		Hand or pedal-operated strippers	Dry pods to <10% moisture for storage

 

Crop	Harvesting Stage	Harvesting Method	Post-Harvest Processing
Sugarcane	10-14 months for maturity	Harvested with knives, cut at ground level	Leaves stripped, immature tops removed
		Bullock or power-operated crushers for juice extraction	Juice clarified with time sucrite, boiled for jaggery making

Summary of Important Points:

Crop	Key Points
Rice	Consumed as whole cooked kernel, undergoes parboiling to improve quality.
Maize	Cobs dried for 3-4 days, stored at 10-12% moisture.
Groundnut	Harvesting requires optimal soil moisture, pods stripped post drying.
Sugarcane	Matured by TSS, harvested and processed for sugar or jaggery production.

 

Topic	Details
Meteorology	Definition: Science of the atmosphere; studies physical processes producing weather.
Climatology	Definition: Science of factors determining climate distribution; includes elements like:
	– Latitude, Altitude, Land and Water, Winds, Pressure Belts, Mountain Barriers, Ocean Currents, Forests.
Agricultural Meteorology	Definition: Study of meteorology relevant to agriculture; investigates crop responses to environmental conditions.
	Abbreviation: Agrometeorology.

 

Importance of Agricultural Meteorology	Benefits
1.	Planning cropping systems and patterns.
2.	Selection of optimal sowing dates for yields.
3.	Cost-effective ploughing, weeding, etc.
4.	Reducing losses of applied chemicals and fertilizers.
5.	Judicious irrigation practices.
6.	Efficient harvesting techniques.
7.	Managing pest and disease outbreaks.
8.	Effective soil management influenced by weather.
9.	Management of weather abnormalities (cyclones, floods, droughts).
10.	Environmental protection and minimizing losses from forest fires.

 

Scope of Agricultural Meteorology	Details
1.	Study of microscale processes (leaf canopies, soil surfaces).
2.	Analysis of weather records to predict plant responses.
3.	Interaction with soil environment and its influence on temperature and nutrient availability.
4.	Study of protected environments (e.g., glasshouses) to enhance agricultural production.

 

Uses of Atmosphere for Agriculture	Details
1.	Provides oxygen for respiration in crops.
2.	Supplies carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
3.	Offers nitrogen essential for plant growth.
4.	Acts as a medium for pollen transportation.
5.	Protects plants from harmful UV rays.
6.	Maintains warmth for plant life.
7.	Provides rain as a source of water vapor and clouds.

Summary Table of Key Terms

Term	Definition
Meteorology	Science of the atmosphere.
Climatology	Study of climate determinants.
Agricultural Meteorology	Applied science linking weather/climate to agriculture.

 

topic	Details
Composition of the Atmosphere	– The atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen (78.08%) and oxygen (20.94%), with traces of argon (0.93%) and carbon dioxide (0.03%).
	– It also contains water vapor (0.02 to 4% by volume) and numerous aerosols (solid and liquid particles).
Structure of the Atmosphere	I. Troposphere
	– The lowest layer, extends up to 14 km (up to 16 km at equator, 7-8 km at poles).
	– Contains almost all water vapor and aerosols, key for weather phenomena.
	– Temperature decreases with height (average lapse rate of 6.5°C per km).
II. Stratosphere	– Above tropopause, extends to 50-55 km altitude.
	– Temperature increases with height due to ozone absorption of UV radiation.
III. Mesosphere / Ozonosphere	– Extends from 30 to 60 km; ozone absorbs UV rays, essential for life protection.
IV. Ionosphere / Thermosphere	– Starts at 80 km, extends up to 400 km; ionized layers reflect radio waves, aiding long-distance communication.
V. Exosphere	– Outermost layer, 400 to 1,000 km altitude; very low density of gases, mainly hydrogen and helium.
Weather and Climate	Weather
	– State of the atmosphere at a specific place and time; includes elements like temperature, pressure, wind, etc.
	– Highly variable, changes frequently.
Climate	– Sum of statistical weather information over a longer period (seasons, years); describes typical conditions in a region.
	– Determines crop suitability and long-term planning.

 

Topic	Details
Solar Radiation	– Primary source of energy on Earth; defined as the flux of radiant energy from the sun.
	– Essential for life; transformed into organic potential energy through photosynthesis.
Types of Heat Transmission	1. Radiation
	– Transmission of energy without a medium; e.g., from sun to Earth.
2. Conduction	– Heat transfer through matter without movement of molecules.
3. Convection	– Heat transfer via movement of molecules; predominant in weather processes.
Solar Spectrum	– Electromagnetic waves spread over a broad band; includes UV, visible light, IR, etc.
	– UV (0.005 – 0.4 microns), visible light (0.4 – 0.7 microns), IR (> 0.7 microns).
Functions of Light	– Influences plant growth, photosynthesis, organ development, flowering, and more.
Solar Constant	– Energy falling on 1 cm² at Earth’s distance from the sun; averages 2 Langley/min. Depends on solar output, distance, atmosphere, etc.
Net Radiation	– Difference between incoming solar radiation and outgoing radiation from Earth; crucial for crop energy processes.
Black Body	– Hypothetical body absorbing all radiation; emits all wavelengths as a perfect radiator.
Black Body Radiation	– Radiation emitted by an ideal black body.
Emittance	– Ratio of emitted radiation to that of an ideal black body.
Absorptivity	– Ratio of absorbed radiation to incident radiation on an object.
Reflectivity	– Ratio of reflected radiation to incident radiation.
Transmissivity	– Ratio of transmitted to incident radiation on a surface.
Albedo	– Ratio of reflected radiation to incident radiation on surfaces like snow, soil, etc.; influences heat availability on Earth’s surface.

 

Factor	Details
1. Type of Plants	– Cereal Crops: Transmissivity 5-10%.
	– Broad Leaves (Evergreen): Transmissivity 2-8%.
	– Aquatic Plants: Transmissivity 4-8%.
2. Age of Leaves	– Young leaves have higher transmissivity compared to older leaves.
3. Chlorophyll Content	– Increased chlorophyll content results in decreased transmissivity.
4. Arrangement of Leaves	– Light interception ratio (horizontal foliage) = 1:0.44.
	– With Leaf Area Index (LAI) of 1, upright leaves: 74% transmissivity, horizontal: 50%.
5. Angle of Leaves	– Optimal angle for light use: 81°.
	– Leaves at optimal inclination are 4-5 times more efficient than horizontal leaves.
	– Ideal leaf arrangement: 0-30° (13%), 30-60° (37%), 60-90° (50%).
6. Plant Density	– Sparse stands have higher light transmissivity; variability throughout the day.
	– Light transmissivity is lowest at noon and highest in morning/evening.
7. Plant Height	– Increased plant height results in decreased light transmissivity through the canopy.
8. Angle of the Sun	– Highest radiation penetration occurs at noon; good penetration also in morning and late afternoon.

Physiological Responses of Plants to Different Bands of Incident Radiation

Band No	Spectral Region (microns)	Character of Absorption	Physiological Effect
1	>1.000	By water in tissues	Converted into heat; no specific effects on photochemical processes.
2	1.000 to 0.700	Slight	Stimulates elongation in plants.
3	0.700 to 0.610	Very strong by chlorophylls	Large effect on photosynthesis and photoperiodism.
4	0.610 to 0.510	Somewhat less	Small effect on photosynthesis; small morphogenic effect.
5	0.510 to 0.400	Very strong by chlorophylls and carotenoids	Large effect on photosynthesis; large morphogenic effect.
6	0.400 to 0.315	By chlorophylls and protoplasm	Small effect on photosynthesis; produces fluorescence in plants.
7	0.315 to 0.280	By protoplasm	Significant germicidal action; stimulates biosynthesis.
8	<0.280	By protoplasm	Large germicidal effects; lethal in large doses.

 

Category	Details
Definitions	Temperature: Measure of speed per molecule of all molecules in a body.
	Heat: Energy arising from random motion of all molecules in a body.
Temperature vs. Heat	Temperature determines heat transfer; higher temperature body loses heat.
	Heat measures total molecular energy; temperature measures average energy of individual molecules.
Air Temperature	Each day, Earth receives energy from solar radiation.
Temperature Distribution	1. Shortwave solar radiation ranges from UV (0.2 µm) to near infrared (3.0 microns).
	2. Maximum at 0.5 microns (blue-green visible light).
	3. Insolation absorbed by Earth’s surface converts to heat (longwave radiation).
	4. Terrestrial longwave radiation peaks at 10 microns (thermal infrared).
Horizontal Temperature Distribution	Variation in sun angles affects heat distribution from equator to poles (isotherms on maps).
Factors Influencing Temperature	1. Latitude: Temperature decreases from equator to poles.
	2. Ocean Currents: Transport heat affecting sea-surface temperature.
	3. Mountain Barriers: Guide cold air movement (e.g., Himalayas protect India).
	4. Topography and Relief: North-facing slopes receive less insolation than south-facing slopes.
Vertical Temperature Distribution	Decrease in temperature with altitude (e.g., permanent snow caps).
Adiabatic Lapse Rate	1. An adiabatic process does not exchange heat with the environment.
	2. Changes in air temperature occur due to pressure changes.
	3. Decreasing pressure leads to temperature decrease; increasing pressure raises temperature.
	4. Dry air adiabatic lapse rate: ~1°C per 100 m; wet adiabatic lapse rate: 6.5°C per km.
Periodic Temperature Variation	Air temperature changes daily and annually.
Mean Daily Cycle	1. Temperature rises after sunrise.
	2. Maximum temperature occurs between 1 p.m. and 4 p.m.; minimum before sunrise.
	3. Maximum insolation at noon, but maximum temperature recorded later (thermal lag).
Mean Annual Cycle	1. Temperature varies by location due to various factors.
	2. Northern hemisphere: winter minimum in January, summer maximum in July; vice-versa in southern hemisphere.
	3. Temperature changes with radiation balance (longwave > shortwave = cooling).
Cardinal Temperatures	1. Minimum Cardinal Temperature: Below which growth ceases.
	2. Optimum Cardinal Temperature: Growth proceeds fastest.
	3. Maximum Cardinal Temperature: Above which growth ceases.
Cardinal Temperatures for Crops
Crop	Min. Cardinal Temp (°C)
Wheat and Barley	0-5
Sorghum	15-18
Importance on Crop Plants	1. Influences crop distribution and vegetation.
	2. Affects growth and development of plants.
	3. Impacts leaf production, expansion, and flowering.
	4. Governs physical and chemical processes within plants.
	5. Affects diffusion rates of gases and liquids.
	6. Solubility of substances depends on temperature.
	7. Influences biochemical reactions (doubles/triples with each 10°C rise).
	8. Affects stability of enzymatic systems in plants.

 

RICE – CULTURAL PRACTICES – YIELD – ECONOMIC BENEFITS – SPECIAL TYPE OF RICE CULTIVATION – SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION, TRANSGENIC RICE – HYBRID RICE

Aspect	Details
Origin	– Cultivated since ancient times in Asia.
	– Evidence from Hasthinapur (1000-750 B.C).
	– Suggested origins: South India, India, and Burma (Vavilov).
Geographic Distribution	– Cultivated area: 155 million hectares, production: 596 million tonnes (paddy).
	– Major producers: India, China, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand.
	– Largest areas in India: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.
Economic Importance	– Largest land use for food production.
	– 90% of production in Asia; significant economic activity for rural populations.
	– Staple food for billions; source of energy for the poor.
Climatic Requirements	– Grown in varying conditions; requires hot, humid climate.
	– Optimal temperature: 21-37°C; humidity and sunlight essential.
Soil Requirements	– Can grow in various soils, ideal in clay or clay loams.
	– Prefers pH 5.5 to 6.5; can tolerate alkaline soils.
Rice Seasons
Sowing Months	– Navarai: Dec-Jan
	– Sornavari: Apr-May
	– Kuruvai: Jun-Jul
	– Samba: Aug
	– Thaladi: Sep-Oct
Varieties
Short Duration Varieties	– Examples: ADT 36, IR 64, ASD 20.
Medium Duration Varieties	– Examples: IR 20, CO 43, ADT 39.
Long Duration Varieties	– Examples: Ponmani, White Ponni.
Hybrid Varieties	– Examples: CORH 1, ADTRH 1.
Types of Rice Cultivation	Transplanted Puddled Lowland Rice
	– Characterized by puddled fields, ensuring optimal growth conditions.
Nursery Management	– Wet and Dry nursery practices; seed treatment essential for healthy seedling development.
Main Field Management	– Land preparation, soil management crucial for optimal growth.
	– Proper leveling and puddling to ensure water retention.
Planting Practices	– Transplanting seedlings with proper spacing; root dipping recommended to enhance growth.
Nutrient Management	– Organic manures and fertilizers applied based on soil tests; balanced NPK ratio is essential.
Weed Management	– Manual weeding, pre-emergence herbicides recommended to control weed competition.
Pest and Disease Management	– Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices to control pest outbreaks.
	– Regular monitoring and use of resistant varieties.
Harvesting Techniques	– Hand harvesting with sickles or machine harvesting using combines for efficiency.
Post-Harvest Management	– Proper drying, storage, and milling to maintain quality and reduce losses.
Irrigation Methods	– Various systems: flood, furrow, drip irrigation based on regional practices.
Rice Production Challenges	– Climate change impacts, water scarcity, pest outbreaks, and soil degradation.
Technological Innovations	– Use of drones for monitoring, precision agriculture techniques for improved yield.

 

Category	Wheat (Triticum aestivum)	Barley (Hordeum vulgare)
Vernacular Names	Gom (Bengali), Ghau (Gujarati), Gehun (Hindi), Godhi (Kannada), Ku’nu’kh (Kashmiri), Gothmbu (Malayalam), Gahu (Marathi), Gahama (Oriya), Kamak (Punjabi), Godumai (Tamil), Godhumalu (Telugu)	–
Origin	Valley of Euphrates and Tigris (De Candolle); Abyssinia and Western Pakistan (Vavilov)	Near-East region, Abyssinia, Southeast Asia (China, Tibet, Nepal)
Geographic Distribution	Cultivated from 57ºN to 47ºS latitude; key countries: China, India, Russia, USA, France, Canada, Germany, Pakistan, Australia, Turkey. In India: UP, Punjab, Haryana, MP, Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, West Bengal	Similar distribution as wheat; key countries: Russia, China, Canada, USA, Spain, France, Australia, UK, India. Major states in India: UP, Rajasthan, MP, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh
Economic Importance	World’s number one cereal; staple food for over 1000 million people; second staple in India after rice; consumed as chapattis, puris, upma, etc.; wheat straw is important for livestock feed	Important after rice, wheat, maize in area and production; drought and salinity resistant; used for malt, beer, whisky, energy drinks, medicinal value (reduces cholesterol)
Soil Requirement	Prefers clay loam or loam with good structure and moderate water holding capacity; avoid very porous and excessively drained soils; neutral pH; heavy soils preferred for dry conditions	Tolerant to salinity and alkalinity, sensitive to acidity; best in drained, fertile deep loam soils with pH 7-8
Climatic Requirement	Germinates above 4ºC; can withstand -9.4ºC (Spring wheat) to -31.6ºC (Winter wheat); optimum temperature 20-22ºC; sensitive to waterlogging; long day plant	Prefers cool and moist climates; sensitive to frost; not suitable for warm and moist conditions
Species	7 species globally; 4 important in India: Common wheat (T. vulgare/aestivum), Durum wheat (T. durum), Emmer wheat (T. dicoccum), Short wheat (T. sphaerococcum)	–
Varieties	Common wheat: Hard Red Winter, Hard Red Spring, Soft Red Winter, White Wheat; Durum wheat: best for pasta; Emmer: suitable for granular preparation; Short wheat: low productivity	Two types: Huskless (Karan 18, 19) and Hulled; Suited for hills (Himani, Dolma, Kailash); Rainfed (Ratna, Vijay, Azad, Ameru); Irrigated (Jyoti, Ranjit, Clipper)
Cultural Practices	Season: Ideal sowing: Oct 15 – Nov 1; Seed rate: 100 kg/ha; Field preparation: Plough twice, prepare fine tilth; Fertilizer application: NPK as per soil test; Weed management: Isoproturon @ 800 g/ha	Season: Sown before end of October (rainfed), Nov for irrigated; Seed rate: 100 kg/ha irrigated, 80-100 kg/ha rainfed; Field preparation: Similar to wheat
Water Management	Requires 4-6 irrigations; critical stages include sowing, crown root initiation, tillering, flowering, grain filling; avoid stagnation	Requires 200-300 mm; 2-3 irrigations; critical periods: seedling, tillering, flag leaf, milking
Yield	Grain yield: 2500-3000 kg/ha in North India; about 2500 kg/ha in Tamil Nadu; Straw yield: ~5000 kg/ha	Yield: 3.0 – 3.5 t/ha (irrigated), 1.5 – 3.0 t/ha (rainfed); Straw yield: 4.0-5.0 t/ha

Detailed Varietal Developments for Wheat

Varietal Development	Details
Wheat Improvement Programs	Initiated at IARI, New Delhi; introduction of semi-dwarf varieties from Mexico in 1963.
Key Varieties Released	Sonora 64, Lerma Rojo, Kalyansona, Sonalika, UP 301, Sonak, HD 2285, PBW 343, HD 2687, WH 542, UP 2336, Raj 3077, CPAN 3004, PDW 215

Detailed Cultural Practices for Barley

Cultural Practices	Details
Land Preparation	Similar to wheat; incorporate 12.5 t/ha of FYM
Nutrient Management	Irrigated: 60:30:20 kg NPK/ha; Rainfed: 40:20:20 kg NPK/ha; 50% N and full dose of P&K as basal, remaining N during first irrigation
Water Management	Requires 2-3 irrigations for good yields; critical stages: seedling, active tillering, flag leaf, milking
Weed Management	Critical weed-free period: 30 days; apply Pendimethalin or Isoproturon + hand weeding

Yield Details for Oats, Rye, and Triticale

Crop	Origin	Geographic Distribution	Economic Importance	Soil Requirements	Climatic Requirements	Varieties	Cultural Practices	Yield
Oats	Asia Minor	USA, Canada, Russia, India	Good cattle feed, human food	Wide range, good water retention	Cool, moist climate	Kent, Algerian, Coachmen	Similar to wheat; seed rate 100 kg/ha; sow mid-Oct to mid-Nov	50-60 t/ha fodder, 200-400 kg grain/ha; max grain yield: 3-3.5 t/ha
Rye	Western Asia	Russia, Germany, USA, India	Used for green fodder, bread	Suitable for sandy soil	Cold tolerant	Athens, Rosan, Dakold	Drill seeding, NPK application, sowing in Oct/Nov	50-55 t/ha fodder, dual crop: 25 t/ha fodder, 2.5 t/ha grain
Triticale	Man-made (wheat x rye)	Worldwide, similar to wheat	High protein, good for animal feed	Similar to wheat	Spring or winter cultivated	Various hexaploid cultivars	Similar to wheat; seed rate: 80-100 kg for rainfed	Similar yields as wheat

 

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.)

Category	Details
Vernacular Names	Juar (Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi), Jola (Kannada), Cholam (Malayalam, Tamil), Jwari (Marathi), Janha (Oriya), Jonnalu (Telugu), Milo, Chari
Origin	Believed to originate from North East Africa or Abyssinia; brought to USA and European countries by slaves.
Geographic Distribution	Grown worldwide except in cool Northeast Europe; Major belts in Africa (Nigeria, Sudan), North and South America, Asia. In India: Maharashtra, Karnataka, MP, AP, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat.
Economic Importance	Fifth largest grain crop worldwide; used as food, livestock feed, and in ethanol production. Drought-tolerant, high-energy crop.
Soil and Climatic Requirements	Grows well in semi-arid or sub-tropical regions; requires 400-1000 mm rainfall in India.
Varieties	Common varieties in Tamil Nadu: CO 26, CO (S) 28, CO (S) 30, BSR 1, COH 4, K tall, K 11, Paiyur 1, Paiyur 2, APK 1.
Cultural Practices	Transplanted and direct sown methods; benefits of transplantation include reduced duration and better pest control.
Yield	4.0-6.0 tonnes grain yield and 15-20 tonnes fodder yield under irrigated conditions; 50-60% grain yield and 60-80% fodder yield in rainfed areas; 15 tonnes fodder yield in ratoon crop.

Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L) R. Br.)

Category	Details
Vernacular Names	Bajra (Bengali, Hindi, Oriya), Bajri (Gujarati, Marathi), Sajje (Kannada), Bajr’u (Kashmiri), Cambu (Malayalam, Tamil), Sazzalu (Telugu), Spiked millet, Pearl millet
Origin	Believed to have originated in Africa and spread to India.
Geographic Distribution	Grown in tropical climates; major countries include India, China, Nigeria, Pakistan, Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Russia. In India: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, UP, Haryana.
Economic Importance	Major coarse grain crop, drought-tolerant; staple food in dry tracts. Nutrient-rich grain used as food, poultry feed, and fodder.
Soil and Climatic Requirements	Grows in tropical climates, adaptable to low rainfall areas.
Varieties	Not specified.
Cultural Practices	Traditional cultivation practices; specific details not provided.
Yield	Not specified.

 

Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum):

Category	Details
Scientific Name	Pennisetum glaucum
Origin	Africa, spread to India
Species	P. glaucum (Pearl Millet), P. purpureum (Elephant grass, for fodder)
Importance	Mineral-rich cereal, protein-rich (10.5-14.5%), contains essential amino acids, staple food for 100 million people, good forage crop, also grown as pasture crop
Global Area (1990)	22.0 million ha, grown in drier regions: India, Africa (Nigeria, Niger, Mali, Chad, Tanzania, Sudan, Senegal); Small areas in USA, S. America, Canada, Japan, Italy, Australia for fodder
Indian Area (1990)	10.6 million ha (1961) to 10.4 million ha (1997); Major states: Rajasthan (5.00 million ha), Maharashtra (1.67 million ha), Gujarat (1.21 million ha), UP (0.95 million ha), Haryana (0.50 million ha)
Ecological Zones	Zone I: Adequate rainfall & fertility (Punjab, UP, Delhi, Haryana, MP); Zone II: Limited rainfall, heavy to light loamy soil (Gujarat, Maharashtra, MP); Zone III: Low rainfall & light soil (Karnataka, N-C AP, Rajasthan); Zone IV: Limited but well-distributed rainfall (TN, Coastal AP)
Climate	Warm weather annual plant; Rainfall of 400-750 mm; Arid & Semi-Arid regions; Moist weather & medium RF sufficient for vegetative growth; Optimum temperature for growth: 28-32ºC; Higher temperatures induce early flowering; Rainfall during flowering & grain formation leads to poor grain setting; Rain at grain maturity leads to ergot disease due to high humidity & low temperature; Optimum sowing time is vital
Varieties	Tamil Nadu: X 6, X 7, CO 7, WCC 75 (World Cumbu Composite), COH 8, K 3, CO 9 (good fodder variety, combination with CO 5 cowpea); North India: Pusa 23 (MH 169), Pusa 322, ICMH 451, ICHM 356, HHB 60, 67, 68, 50, RHB 30, 90, MH 605 (Pusa 605), MH 790, MH 782
Soil	Loamy sands to loams, well-drained, non-saline and non-alkaline soils; Sensitive to waterlogged areas
Field Preparation	Moisture conservation practices, summer ploughing, deep tillage once in three years; Fine and smooth seed bed free from clods; Free of termites and ants
Sowing	Optimum time crucial, Mid-July suitable (onset of monsoon in Rajasthan); In TN: Jun-July and Sep-Oct, also in summer; Seed treatment important
Seed Rate	4-5 kg if sown behind country plough; 3.75 kg for nursery cum transplanting; Transplanting suitable for delayed sowing; 500 m² nursery; 15-18 days old seedlings; Optimum population: 175,000 to 200,000 plants/ha; Row spacing: 45 cm (less for certain varieties like CO 7); Plant spacing after thinning: 15 cm for irrigated crops
Weed Management	Manual weeding costly; Inter-cultural operation with machinery useful; Thinning increases tillering; Pre-emergence herbicides: Atrazine 0.25 kg, Pendimethalin if intercropped with pulses
Nutrient Management	Compared to sorghum and maize, lower N & P removal, but higher K; Fertilizer schedule based on soil test: Irrigated – Hybrids: 80:40:40, Varieties: 70:35:35; Rainfed – Low rainfall: 40:30:30, Moderate to high: 60-80:40:40; N in 2 splits and P & K as basal; Micro-nutrients: Zn 25 kg, Fe 12.5-25 kg for deficient soils; FYM 5 t/ha; Bio-fertilizers: Azospirillum & azotobacter
Water Management	Highly drought-evading; Requires lower water than other cereals (250-350 mm sufficient); Moisture at anthesis & flowering stages crucial; 3-4 irrigations sufficient for good yield
Moisture Conservation	Deep ploughing once, 3-4 ploughings before sowing; Ridges and furrow system; FYM application (5 t/ha); Use of mulches to reduce evaporation; Use of anti-transpiration materials (kaolin, PMA, Atrazine); Seed treatment; Removal of 1/3 upper part of seedlings to minimize transpiration; Mid-season correction if drought occurs; Appropriate weed control measures; Intercropping with legumes
Cropping Systems	Single crop per annum in Rajasthan; Alternating with legumes recommended; In higher rainfall areas, followed by a Rabi crop; Intercropping with pulses and oilseeds possible
Harvesting & Grain Quality	At physiological maturity or 15-20% grain moisture; Ear heads separated, dried, and threshed; Threshed grains dried to 12-14% moisture
Grain Yield	Irrigated: 3.0-3.5 t/ha; Rainfed: 1.2-1.5 t/ha

Small Millets

Millet Type	Special Characteristics
Finger millet (Ragi)	Highly tolerant to alkalinity, even >pH 11.0
Foxtail millet (Kangni)	Susceptible to both drought & water logging
Kodo millet (Kodra)	Highly drought resistant
Little millet (Kutki)	Highly drought resistant & tolerant to water logging
Proso/Common millet (Cheena)	Highly drought resistant
Barnyard millet (Sawan)	Highly drought resistant & tolerant to water logging

General Characteristics

Characteristics
Grow during adverse soil & climate conditions
Mostly shorter in duration
Some are suitable for contingency plans
Proso & Little millets mature in a shorter duration, providing food during lean months for tribal people
Grown in Asian & African countries

 Thenai – Setaria italica (Foxtail millet)

Details	Information
Common Names	Fox tail millet, Kangni, kakun
Area in India	0.5 million ha
History	Known earlier than 4150 BC
Global Distribution	India, China, Japan, Russia, Europe, S&N America, Australia
Inflorescence	Dense, cylindrical, bristly
Stem	Smooth and small
Varieties in TN	CO 6 – 90 d, CO5 – 95 d

Samai – Panicum sumatrense (Little millet)

Details	Information
Common Names	Little millet, Kutki, Gunduli
Global Distribution	India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Myanmar, SE Asia
Area in India	0.5 million ha
Main States in India	Karnataka, AP, TN, Orissa, Bihar & Maharashtra
Usage	Cooked and used like rice
Stem	Tillering, solid / hollow small stem
Inflorescence	Large, open panicle with numerous spikelets
Varieties in TN	CO3 – 85d, CO2 – 85d, CO1 – 90d, PAIYUR 2 – 100d

Varagu – Paspalum scrobiculatum (Kodo millet)

Details	Information
Common Names	Kodo millet, Kodra
Special Characteristics	Can be sown after continuous drought
Seed Viability	Longer
Medicinal Value	Cures diseases in lungs, loose motion, healing wounds, maintains body balance
Main Region in India	S. India
Average Yield in TN	1.4 t as against 0.3 t of All India
Stem	Profusely tillering, fully sheathed solid internodes
Varieties in TN	CO3 – 120d, APK -1 100d

Panivaragu Panicum miliaceum (Proso/Common millet)

Details	Information
Common Names	Proso / Common millet, Cheena
History	Spread from Manchuria 300 years ago
Global Distribution	China & Eurasia cultivated before wheat & barley
Water Requirement	Very little water
Stem	Slender and leafy up to panicle, 90-120cm tall
Grain Color	Olive brown
Varieties	CO 3 – 75d, CO 4 – 70d & K2 75d

Kudiraivali Echinocloa frumentacea (Barnyard millet)

Details	Information
Common Names	Barnyard millet, Sawan
Global Distribution	India, China, Japan & Africa
Usage	Grain cum fodder, nutritious and tasty husked rice
Origin	Rice weed
Main States in India	MP, UP, TN, AP, Karnataka, Bihar
Main Regions in TN	Ramnad, Tirunelveli, Virudunagar & Madurai
Varieties	CO 1 – 110d, K1 85d, K2 – 90d

Agro-techniques for Small Millets

Category	Details
Season	Rainy season, mostly rainfed
Field Preparation	Starting from summer ploughing, fine tilth
Seed Rate & Spacing	8-15kg, Line sowing – 10kg, Seed drill – Goru – 12.5 kg, Spacing 22.5 (10”) x 10 (4”) cm
Sowing	Beds and compartmental bunding, treated seeds, pre-monsoon, cover the seeds
Manures & Fertilizers	Organics in the last plough to conserve moisture, Responds to inorganic: 20-40 kg N, 10-20 kg P2O5, 10-20 kg K2O, Higher N dose up to 60 kg for irrigated, Fox tail millet responds well to N, Jalshakthi & Organic improves common millet
Irrigation	Though rainfed, one or two irrigations at critical periods enhance yield
Weed Management	Mostly hand weeded, Isoproturan @ 0.5 kg on 3rd day, 2,4 D Na salt @0.5 kg on 20-25DAS, Thinning during 1st hand weeding
Cropping System	Mixed with cotton, maize, sorghum, red gram & other pulses in Kharif, In Rabi with rape seed, mustard, gram, lentil, linseed, barley etc under rainfed conditions
Harvest	After ear heads fully matured, Two times cutting is also good, Ear heads are dried and threshed, Only after husking used for consumption, Better to be used after storage

Redgram (Cajanus cajan)

Importance of Pulses:

• India ranks first in area and production
• Due to hardy nature, they find place all over
• Less productivity due to unfavorable soil, less important managements, inherent genetic potential
• Economic volume may be less but energy required to produce pulses is 4.3 times less than for other cereals
• A substitute for protein which is otherwise obtained from costly animal products
• 20-40% protein, 50% carbohydrates & 3.5-5% fiber
• Contributes 14% to food grain basket
• Easily available, free from religious taboos
• Dual purpose: Pulse & fodder
• Supplies fuel and organic manure from residues
• Efficient nitrogen fixers: 72-350 kg/ha and leguminous crops can fix 40 kg N/ha in 1 year
• Pulses are included in cereal based cropping system for sustainability
• Alternative protein source for vegetarians
• 17-24% protein, 40-50% starch, 6-7% edible oil, vitamins, iron, and calcium
• Ensure good soil health through crop rotation and diversified cropping systems
• Fixes atmospheric nitrogen through nodules (2/3rd fixed N is utilized by crop, 1/3rd is used by succeeding crops)

Cotton Cultivation

General Information

Characteristic	Details
Botanical Name	Gossypium spp.
Family	Malvaceae
Common Names	Cotton
Major Producers	India, China, USA, Pakistan, Brazil
Fiber Type	Natural cellulose fiber
Uses	Textile industry, oilseed production, animal feed (cottonseed meal)

Varieties

Variety	Characteristics
Bt Cotton	Genetically modified for pest resistance
Hybrid Cotton	High yield potential, requires more inputs
Desi Cotton	Indigenous variety, drought-resistant

Climatic Requirements

Parameter	Optimal Conditions
Temperature	21-27°C during growing season
Rainfall	500-700 mm, evenly distributed
Soil	Well-drained loamy soils with pH 6-7.5

Soil Preparation

Step	Details
Primary Tillage	Deep ploughing to 30-40 cm depth
Secondary Tillage	Harrowing and leveling for a fine tilth
Bed Preparation	Raised beds to improve drainage and aeration

Sowing

Parameter	Details
Sowing Time	Varies by region: Kharif (June-July) or Rabi (October-November)
Seed Rate	12-15 kg/ha for Bt and hybrid varieties, 15-20 kg/ha for Desi varieties
Sowing Method	Line sowing with a spacing of 75-90 cm between rows and 30-45 cm between plants

Fertilizer Management

Nutrient	Application Rate and Timing
Nitrogen (N)	80-120 kg/ha, split application (1/3 basal, 1/3 at first square, 1/3 at flowering)
Phosphorus (P2O5)	40-60 kg/ha, basal application
Potassium (K2O)	40-60 kg/ha, basal application
Micronutrients	Foliar sprays of Zn, Fe, and B as required

Irrigation

Parameter	Details
Critical Stages	Germination, square formation, flowering, and boll development
Frequency	Every 7-10 days during critical stages, reduced frequency during other periods

Weed Management

Method	Details
Mechanical	Inter-row cultivation and hand weeding
Chemical	Pre-emergence herbicides (Pendimethalin) and post-emergence herbicides (Glyphosate)

Pest and Disease Management

Pest/Disease	Management Practices
Bollworms	Bt cotton varieties, insecticide sprays (spinosad, emamectin benzoate)
Aphids and Whiteflies	Insecticidal sprays (imidacloprid, thiamethoxam)
Fusarium Wilt	Resistant varieties, soil solarization
Bacterial Blight	Copper-based fungicides, resistant varieties

Harvesting

Parameter	Details
Harvest Time	140-160 days after sowing, when 60-70% of bolls are open
Method	Hand picking or mechanical harvesting
Post-Harvest	Drying, ginning to separate fiber from seeds, baling for transport

Yield and Economics

Parameter	Details
Average Yield	1.5-2.5 tonnes/ha for Bt and hybrid varieties, 0.8-1.2 tonnes/ha for Desi varieties
Cost of Cultivation	Varies by region and input use
Market Price	Influenced by fiber quality, international cotton prices

Major Cotton Growing States in India

State	Area (Million ha)	Production (Million bales)	Notes
Gujarat	2.7	9.0	Largest cotton producer
Maharashtra	4.1	8.2	Largest area under cotton
Telangana	1.9	5.3
Andhra Pradesh	1.4	4.4
Haryana	0.7	2.6	High productivity

Key Challenges

Challenge	Details
Pest Resistance	Bollworm resistance to Bt cotton
Water Scarcity	Dependence on monsoon, need for efficient irrigation methods
Market Fluctuations	Price volatility due to global market conditions