Horticulture Notes For IBPS AFO NABARD

Preparing for the IBPS AFO and NABARD exams requires a solid understanding of horticulture concepts. Below are key notes organized by topics to help you with your preparation notes by Gurukul agri

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Aspect	Details
Definition	The term “Horticulture” is derived from two Latin words: “Hortus” meaning garden or enclosure and “Cultra” meaning cultivation. Hence, horticulture means garden culture or culture of garden crops.
Relation to Agriculture	Horticulture is a part of agriculture focused on raising garden crops, whereas agriculture broadly includes the technology of raising plants and animals.
Historical Context	– Staple crops like paddy, maize, and wheat were traditionally grown in open fields on a large scale. – Crops of special interest such as fruits, vegetables, and flowers were grown in backyards or protected enclosures.
Modern Context	– Today, fruits, vegetables, and flowers are grown both in backyards and on a commercial scale in open fields. – Modern horticulture includes fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, condiments, plantation crops, medicinal, and aromatic plants.
Definition (Modern)	Modern horticulture is a part of agricultural science that deals with the production, utilization, and improvement of fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamentals, plantation crops, medicinal, and aromatic plants.

Divisions of Horticulture

Division	Description
Fruits	Cultivation and improvement of various fruit crops.
Vegetables	Cultivation and improvement of various vegetable crops.
Flowers	Cultivation and improvement of flowers and ornamental plants.
Plantation Crops	Cultivation and improvement of crops grown on plantations, such as tea, coffee, and rubber.
Spices and Condiments	Cultivation and improvement of spice and condiment crops.
Medicinal and Aromatic Crops	Cultivation and improvement of medicinal and aromatic plants.
Ornamental Gardens and Parks	Planning, raising, and maintaining ornamental gardens and parks.
Shade and Avenue Trees	Raising trees for shade and avenue purposes.
Seed and Planting Material	Raising and maintaining seed and planting materials for horticultural crops.
Utilization of Horticultural Produce	Processing and utilizing horticultural produce for various purposes.
Improvement of Horticultural Crops	Research and development aimed at improving the yield, quality, and resistance of horticultural crops.

Divisions and Sub-Divisions of Horticulture

Division	Description	Examples
Pomology	Study or cultivation of fruit crops. Derived from “Pomum” (fruit) and “Logos” (discourse or study).	Mango, Sapota, Guava, Grape, Banana
Fruit	Developed and matured ovary, generally eaten raw.
Olericulture	Cultivation of vegetables. Derived from “Oleris” (potherb) and “Cultra” (cultivation).	Brinjal, Okra, Tomato, Pumpkin
Vegetable	Any part of a herbaceous plant used as a principal part of a meal after cooking.
Floriculture	Study and cultivation of flower crops. Derived from “Florus” (flower) and “Cultra” (cultivation).
Commercial Floriculture	Cultivation of flower crops on a commercial scale for profit.	Rose, Jasmine, Carnation, Aster, Marigold
Ornamental Floriculture	Raising flower crops for ornamental, pleasure, and fashion purposes.	Dahlia, Zinnia, Cosmos, Hibiscus, Balsam, Nerium, Poinsettia, Hollyhock, Gerbera, Gaillardia
Arboriculture	Raising perennial trees for shade, avenue, or ornamental purposes.	Polyalthia, Spathodea, Cassia, Gulmohar
Plantation Crops	Crops cultivated on an extensive scale in large areas, processed before utilization.	Coffee, Tea, Rubber, Coconut, Cocoa
Spices and Condiments	Cultivation of crops for seasoning and flavoring dishes.
Spices	Plants used as food adjuncts to add aroma and flavor.	Pepper, Cardamom, Clove, Cinnamon, Allspice
Condiments	Plants used as food adjuncts to add taste.	Turmeric, Ginger, Red chilies, Onion, Garlic
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants	Cultivation of plants providing drugs and essential oils.
Medicinal Plants	Plants rich in secondary metabolites used for drugs.	Periwinkle, Opium, Fenugreek, Cinchona, Dioscorea Yam, Belladona, Senna, Rauwolfia, Ashwagandha, Tulasi
Aromatic Plants	Plants possessing essential oils.	Lemon grass, Citronella, Palmarosa, Vetiver, Geranium, Davana, Lavender
Fruit Technology	Processing and preservation of horticulture produce.
Landscape Gardening	Planning and execution of ornamental gardens, parks, and landscape gardens.
Nursery and Seed Production	Production of seeds and planting material of horticulture crops on a commercial basis.
Aesthetic Value Plants	Plants grown for their aesthetic value are also included in horticulture.

Role of Horticultural Crops in Human Nutrition

Nutrient	Role in Human Health	Sources (Fruits)	Sources (Vegetables)
Vitamins	Indispensable part of human diet, essential for maintenance of health. Deficiency leads to various health disorders.
Vitamin A	Essential for normal growth, reproduction, maintenance of health, protection against cold, influenza, and prevents night blindness. Deficiency results in cessation of growth in children, night blindness, skin eruptions, and brittle teeth.	Mango, Papaya, Dates, Jackfruit, Walnut	Palak, Spinach, Amaranthus, Fenugreek, Carrot, Cabbage, Lettuce, Peas, Tomato
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)	Tones nervous system, helps digestive tract function. Deficiency leads to Beriberi, paralysis, heart enlargement, loss of appetite, weight, and body temperature.	Orange, Pineapple, Jackfruit, Cashew nut, Walnut, Dry Apricot, Almond, Banana	Green Chilli, Beans, Onion, Sweet Potato, Red Tomato, Leaves of Colocasia
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)	Required for body growth and skin health. Deficiency causes sore throat, anorexia, cataract, loss of appetite and body weight, swollen nose.	Bael, Papaya, Litchi, Banana, Apricot, Pomegranate, Pear	Cabbage, Cauliflower, Potato, Peas, Beans, Methi, Lettuce, Asparagus, Green Chillies, Leafy Vegetables
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)	Promotes general health, healthy gums, prevents scurvy, keeps blood vessels in good condition.	Amla, Guava, Ber, Citrus, Strawberry, Pineapple	Tomato, Palak, Methi, Cabbage, Green Chillies, Spinach, Potatoes, Peas, Beans, Carrot
Vitamin D	Necessary for building bones, preventing rickets, and teeth diseases.		All Green Leafy Vegetables
Vitamin E	Promotes fertility and generative functions.		Green Lettuce and other Green Vegetables
Vitamin K	Prevents blood clotting.		All Green Leafy Vegetables
Minerals	Essential for maintaining good health.
Calcium	Essential for bone development, heartbeat regulation, blood clot control.	Acid Lime, Orange, Fig, Dried Apricots, Wood Apple	Cabbage, Greens, Beans, Carrot, Onions, Peas, Tomatoes, Agati, Spinach, Drumstick Leaves
Iron	Required for hemoglobin production, constituent of red blood corpuscles. Deficiency causes anemia, smooth tongue, pale lips, eyes, and skin, frequent exhaustion.	Custard Apple, Guava, Pineapple, Strawberry, Grape, Black Currants, Dried Dates	Carrot, Drumstick Leaves, Beans, Agati
Phosphorous	Essential for moisture content of tissues, bone development.	Guava, Grape, Jackfruit, Passion Fruit, Orange	Carrot, Chilli, Drumstick Leaves, Beans, Cucumber, Onion
Proteins	Bodybuilding foods essential for growth, deficiency causes retarded growth, disease susceptibility, lethargy.	Guava, Banana	Peas, Beans
Enzymes	Required for controlling several metabolic activities in the body.	Papaya (Papain), Pineapple (Bromelain)
Fibre and Roughages	Required for digestion and prevention of constipation.	Guava, Amla	Leafy Vegetables
Energy Foods	Contain carbohydrates and fats, supply energy to the human body.	Banana, Dates, Apple, Walnut, Cashew Nut, Almond	Potatoes, Sweet Potato, Beans, Peas

Influence of Environmental Factors on Horticultural Crop Production

Factor	Influence on Crop Production	Examples and Specific Effects
Temperature	Critical determinant of plant growth. Both high and low temperatures affect plant growth. Broad-leaved, evergreen plants are susceptible to low temperatures, while deciduous plants tolerate low temperatures better by shedding foliage. Ideal temperature range for most tropical and subtropical plants is 20-30°C.	– Low Temperature: Below 5°C stresses plants; temperate plants require chilling winters (2-7°C). – High Temperature: Above 40°C causes scorching and burning of leaves, bolting, and seed formation in spinach and lettuce. – Optimum Temperature: 22-27°C is ideal for most plants.
Humidity	Essential for plant growth and fruit quality. High humidity can lead to disease resurgence and pest issues. Low humidity favors better color development in some fruits.	– High Humidity: Promotes diseases like powdery mildew in mango; fruit fly incidence increases in mango. Low Humidity: Better color development in oranges. Fluctuation: Causes fruit cracking.
Wind	High velocity winds cause damage to fruit trees, shedding of flowers, and fruit drop. Retards pollinator activity. Windbreaks are necessary for protection.	– High Velocity Winds: Cause breakage of limbs, scorching of banana leaves. – Pollinators: Bee activity reduced significantly with increasing wind velocity.
Rainfall	Amount and distribution of rainfall are crucial for growth and development. Rain at flowering time reduces fruit set. Rainfall at different growth stages affects crop outcomes.	– Flowering: Rain washes out pollen grains, reducing fruit set. Harvest: Rains before harvest cause softening of fruits like banana and date palm, increase fruit fly infection in guava and peaches.
Hailstorms	Cause significant damage to fruit crops, especially during flowering and fruit maturity, leading to heavy flower and fruit drop.	– Damage: Hailstorms during flowering and fruit maturity are particularly disastrous, leading to poor returns for growers.
Solar Radiation	Primary source of energy for plants, essential for photosynthesis. Better yields are observed in orchards receiving ample sunlight. Training and pruning are essential for maximizing solar radiation absorption.	– Better Yield: Orchards on the southern slope with better radiation exposure have higher yields. Plant Productivity: Periphery and top portions of plants are more productive due to better sunlight.

Systems of Orchard Planting

The arrangement of plants in an orchard is crucial for maximizing efficiency and ensuring the healthy growth of trees.

Several systems of planting are commonly used, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Here is a detailed overview:

System	Description	Procedure for Layout	Merits	Demerits
Square System	Trees planted at each corner of a square with equal spacing between rows and plants.	1. Establish a baseline parallel to the boundary. 2. Place pegs at equal planting distances along the baseline. 3. Draw perpendicular lines using cross-staff or Pythagoras method.	– Simple and easy to layout. Allows cultural operations in two directions.	– Wastes space in the center of each square.
Rectangular System	Similar to the square system but with different distances between rows and plants.	Follow steps 1-3 as in the square system, then: 4. Mark planting positions on perpendicular lines according to row spacing.	– Similar advantages to square system.	– Cultivation becomes difficult as trees grow.
Quincunx (Filler) System	Modification of the square system with additional trees (fillers) planted in the center of each square.	1. Lay out the square system. 2. Draw diagonals of each square. 3. Plant fillers at intersection points.	– Doubles plant population compared to the square system.	– Intercultural operations are difficult due to filler trees.
Hexagonal System	Trees planted at each corner of an equilateral triangle, sometimes with a seventh tree in the center (septule).	1. Mark four sides as in the square system. 2. Use a rope or iron chain to form equilateral triangles from plant positions.	– Allows cultivation in three directions. – Maximizes land use, allowing 15% more plants than the square system.	– Difficult to implement in practice. Hard to carry out intercultural operations.
Triangular System	Trees are planted as in the square system, but in alternate rows, trees are placed midway between those in the previous row.	Follow a similar procedure to the square system, ensuring the spacing forms an isolateral triangle.	– Not of much practical importance.	– Plants are not equidistant from all sides. Accommodates fewer trees per hectare than the square system.
Contour System	Used on hills, planting along the contour lines to minimize erosion and conserve soil moisture.	1. Design contour lines across slopes. 2. Plant trees along the contour lines at right angles. 3. Terracing may be used for steep slopes.	– Minimizes soil erosion. Conserves soil moisture.	– Trees may not be equidistant. Fewer plants per unit area compared to other systems.

Key Considerations for Choosing a Planting System

Maximizing Plant Density: Ensure the system accommodates the maximum number of plants per unit area.
Sufficient Space: Each tree should have enough space for healthy growth.
Equal Distribution: Trees should be evenly distributed for optimal growth and resource utilization.
Ease of Operations: The system should allow for easy intercultural operations like ploughing and spraying.
Effective Supervision: The layout should facilitate easy and effective supervision of the orchard.

Additional Notes

Square System: Most common and simplest to lay out; ideal for easy maintenance and intercultural operations.
Rectangular System: Suitable when row spacing differs from plant spacing within rows; can be challenging as trees grow.
Quincunx (Filler) System: Best for utilizing space before permanent trees reach full size; fillers are removed once main trees mature.
Hexagonal System: Optimal for maximizing plant density in fertile, well-watered land; requires precise layout.
Triangular System: Less common; not as efficient in land use compared to square and hexagonal systems.
Contour System: Essential for hilly and undulating terrain; focuses on preventing erosion and conserving moisture.

High density planting / high density orcharding

Aspect	Details
Definition	Planting of fruit trees at closer spacing using special techniques to maximize productivity per unit area without sacrificing quality.
Origins	Established in apple orchards in Europe during the 1960s; now used in Europe, America, Australia, and New Zealand.
Classifications (Apples)	– Low HDP: < 250 trees/ha – Moderate HDP: 250-500 trees/ha – High HDP: 500-1250 trees/ha – Ultra High HDP: > 1250 trees/ha – Super High Density: Up to 20,000 trees/ha – Meadow Orchards: Up to 70,000 trees/ha
Principles	– Utilization of vertical and horizontal space per unit time – Optimal use of resources – Enhanced productivity by balancing vegetative and reproductive growth
Advantages	1) Induces precocity/precocious bearing 2) Higher yields (e.g., average yield in apple: 5.0 t/ha under normal planting vs. 140.0 t/ha under HDP) 3) Higher returns per unit area 4) Early returns 5) Easy management of orchard trees 6) Reduces labor cost, leading to low cost of production 7) Facilitates mechanization of fruit crop production and more efficient use of fertilizers, water, solar radiation, fungicides, herbicides, and pesticides
Disadvantages	1) Overcrowding and competition for space, nutrients, and water 2) Increased pest and disease susceptibility due to high humidity and lack of cross ventilation 3) Long-term yield reduction after 10-12 years 4) Potential for smaller and lower-quality fruits
Application in India	High density planting has proven effective for enhancing productivity in Indian fruit crops such as pineapple, banana, papaya, mango, apple, and citrus. It significantly improves productivity and efficiency in the Indian fruit industry.

Plant propagation:

Aspect	Details
Definition	Plant propagation refers to the multiplication of an individual plant or group of plants to develop new individuals or establish new plantings, gardens, or orchards. It involves the creation of new plants from existing ones.
Methods of Propagation	Broadly grouped into two categories: 1. Sexual (Seed) Propagation 2. Asexual Propagation
Sexual (Seed) Propagation	Involves the multiplication of plants through seeds. It includes the fusion of male and female gametes to produce seeds, with meiosis reducing chromosome numbers. Resulting plants may vary from parents due to genetic recombination.
Seed Characteristics	– Seed is a fertilized ovule containing an embryo from male and female gamete union. – Seeds give rise to new plants upon germination. – Plants produced from seeds are known as seedlings.
Advantages of Seed Propagation	1) Seedlings generally live longer, bear more heavily, and are hardier. 2) Seedlings are cheaper and easier to raise. 3) Essential for propagating plants like papaya and phalsa. 4) Useful in breeding for new varieties and hybrids. 5) Chance seedlings may have superior traits. 6) Rootstocks for grafting are usually raised from seeds. 7) Polyembryonic seeds can produce multiple seedlings. 8) Virus diseases are less likely transmitted through seeds. 9) Seeds can be stored for long periods.
Disadvantages of Seed Propagation	1) Seedlings may not be uniform in growth, yield, or fruit quality due to genetic variation. 2) Longer time to fruit bearing compared to grafted plants. 3) Large seedling trees can be difficult to manage. 4) Rootstock benefits are lost without vegetative propagation. 5) Continuous seed propagation can lead to progeny inferiority. 6) Long juvenile period. 7) True-to-type multiplication is not possible due to character segregation. 8) Seeds may lose viability quickly.

Asexual propagation:

Aspect	Details
Definition	Asexual propagation, also known as vegetative or clonal propagation, involves the reproduction of plants using vegetative parts such as roots, shoots, or leaves, without involving sexual reproduction.
Process	Involves the use of vegetative parts which possess somatic cells that divide by mitosis. This results in new plants with the same genetic constitution as the parent plant, ensuring true-to-type characteristics with no variation.
Methods	– Stem Cuttings: Pieces of stems that produce a new root system. – Root Cuttings: Pieces of roots that develop into new plants. – Leaf Cuttings: Leaves that generate both roots and shoots.
Advantages	1) Essential for plants that produce little or no viable seeds (e.g., banana, pineapple, fig). 2) Maintains unique characteristics of cross-pollinated plants (e.g., mango, citrus). 3) Easier, faster, and often more economical compared to seed propagation. 4) Allows for development of resistant plants (e.g., grafting European grapes on resistant American rootstocks) 5) Adaptation to unfavorable conditions (e.g., using suitable rootstocks). 6) Controls tree size and facilitates management (e.g., dwarf rootstocks). 7) More precocious bearing (e.g., grafted mangoes bear fruit in 3-4 years). 8) Combines different varieties on a single plant (e.g., grafting pollinizers or top working). 9) Maintains specific plant forms and traits (e.g., thornless citrus plants). 10) Repairs injuries (e.g., bridge grafting).
Disadvantages	1) New varieties cannot be evolved through vegetative methods. 2) Can be more expensive than seed propagation. 3) Shorter lifespan and poor anchorage compared to seed-propagated plants 4) Generally less hardy. 5) Can transmit viral diseases.

Plant propagation by separation and division:

Propagation Method	Description	Examples	Advantages	Disadvantages
Separation	Breaking away daughter structures from the parent structure to establish new plants.	Bulbs: Onion, daffodil, tulip. Corms: Amorphophallus, Colocasia, Gladiolus.	– Simple and effective. Produces true-to-type plants. Minimal variation.	– Can be labor-intensive. May require careful handling to avoid damage.
Bulb Separation	Removing bulblets from the parent bulb.	Tunicate Bulbs: Onion, daffodil. Non-Tunicate Bulbs: Lily.	– Efficient for plants with multiple bulblets. Protective tunic of tunicate bulbs.	– Non-tunicate bulbs are more easily damaged. Some bulbs may not produce many bulblets.
Corms	Modified stem storing food; new corms form above the old one.	Amorphophallus, Colocasia, Gladiolus.	– Effective for plants with corms. Can be propagated by separating cormels.	– Old corms are exhausted and destroyed. Cormels must be handled carefully.
Rhizome Division	Cutting sections of a horizontally growing underground stem, ensuring each section has a bud.	Bamboo, Banana, Iris.	– Produces true-to-type plants. Can handle various rhizome types.	– Requires sections to have at least one bud. Rhizomes may be difficult to handle.
Stolon	Horizontal stems that produce adventitious roots; can be cut and planted separately.	Mint, Bermuda grass.	– Effective for plants with stolons. Simple propagation by cutting and planting.	– Stolons may need careful handling. Can be less efficient for some plants.
Runner	Specialized stem growing horizontally and forming new plants at nodes.	Strawberry, Oxalis, Blueberry.	– Effective for plants with runners. Simple propagation by cutting and transplanting.	– Rooted daughter plants must be well-rooted before transplanting. Requires space.
Stem Tuber	Swollen underground stem with eyes/nodes; sections with buds can be planted.	Potato.	– Provides a method for planting tubers with eyes. Efficient for tuberous crops.	– Tubers may be susceptible to disease – Requires careful cutting and handling.
Tuberous Roots	Thickened storage roots lacking nodes and internodes; propagated by dividing the crown.	Dahlia, Begonia, Sweet potato.	– Effective for plants with tuberous roots. Ensures true-to-type propagation.	– Lack of nodes can complicate propagation. Requires careful handling of the crown.
Offset	Short, thickened horizontal branch from the crown, often separating naturally to establish new plants.	Pistia, Agave, Water hyacinth, Cycas, Dracaena.	– Effective for plants producing offsets. – Can naturally separate from the parent plant.	– May require timely harvesting. – Some offsets may not establish quickly.
Suckers	Lateral branches from underground parts or roots; can be shoot or root suckers.	Shoot Suckers: Chrysanthemum, Banana, Pineapple. Root Suckers: Guava, Millingtonia, Curry leaf.	– Effective for plants with suckers. – Can propagate plants that produce suckers naturally.	– Suckers may be less vigorous. – Handling and separation can be labor-intensive.

Plant propagation by cuttings:

Stem Cuttings

Description: Using parts of stems to grow new plants.
Types:
- Hardwood Cuttings:

Preparation:

Select fully matured shoots from a healthy, vigorous plant.
Remove all leaves, leaving axillary buds intact.
Make a slant cut just below the basal node and a horizontal cut 1-2.5 cm above the top node.
Treat with growth regulators if needed.
Insert cuttings into soil, ensuring at least two nodes are buried.
Press soil firmly and water immediately.

Examples: Grape, Fig, Pomegranate, Bougainvillea, Acalypha, Rose.

Types:

Straight Cuttings: Only current year’s wood. E.g., Hibiscus, Nerium.

Heel Cuttings: Retain a small piece of older wood at the base. E.g., Rose.

Mallet Cuttings: Retain an entire section of older wood. E.g., Thuja.

Advantages: True-to-type plants; effective for many species.

Disadvantages: Requires careful handling; may not root easily for some species.

Semi-Hardwood Cuttings:

Preparation:

Use partially matured shoots.
Take a 7-15 cm terminal portion.
Remove leaves towards the base; retain and trim large terminal leaves.
Plant similarly to hardwood cuttings.

Examples: Camellia, Citrus, Eranthemum, Geranium, Hibiscus, Jasmine, Olive.

Advantages: Suitable for many plants.

Disadvantages: Requires specific conditions and care.

Softwood Cuttings:

Preparation:

Select soft, succulent shoots from new growth.
Cut 7-15 cm terminal portion.
Retain leaves except for the buried part.
Keep in high humidity conditions.

Examples: Nerium, Crotons, Eranthemum, Graptopetalum.

Advantages: Useful for certain species; relatively straightforward.

Disadvantages: Needs high humidity; susceptible to disease.

Herbaceous Cuttings:

Preparation:

Use succulent herbaceous shoots.
Retain all leaves; make a basal cut below a node.
Plant similarly to hardwood cuttings.
Examples: Chrysanthemum, Coleus, Carnations, Geraniums, Cactus.
Advantages: Effective for herbaceous plants.
Disadvantages: May not work for all plant types.

Leaf Cuttings

Description: Using leaves, with or without petioles or axillary buds, to grow new plants.

Types:

Leaf Blade Cuttings:

Preparation:

Select a healthy leaf.
Make a slanting cut at the base; cut 7-10 cm sections.
Insert up to ¾ of the leaf into the medium.
Ensure proper polarity, water immediately.
Examples: Sansevieria.

Advantages: Simple and effective for certain species.

Disadvantages: Not suitable for all plants.

Leaf Vein Cuttings:

Preparation:

Select a healthy, mature leaf.
Cut along alternate veins on the lower surface.
Lay leaf flat on the medium, pin down if needed.
Water carefully.

Examples: Begonia rex.

Advantages: Effective for specific plants.

Disadvantages: Requires careful handling and maintenance.

Leaf Bud Cuttings:

Preparation:

Use a leaf with petiole and short stem piece, including an axillary bud.

Treat with rooting hormones if needed.

Plant so the bud is 1.5-2.5 cm below the surface.

Compress medium and water immediately.

Examples: Blackberry, Camellia, Lemon, Rhododendron, Raspberry.

Advantages: Useful for plants that form roots but not shoots from leaves.

Disadvantages: Requires precise preparation and conditions.

Leaf Margin Cuttings:

Preparation:

Select a mature leaf with foliar embryos.
Keep the leaf flat or cut along the midrib to lay it flat.
Cover margins with soil or weigh down.
Water carefully.

Examples: Bryophyllum.

Advantages: Effective for certain species that form plantlets along margins.

Disadvantages: Limited to specific plants; requires careful handling.

Root Cuttings

Description: Using sections of roots to propagate new plants.

Preparation:

Select healthy roots from a vigorous plant.
Cut into sections with at least one bud or shoot.
Plant in soil or rooting medium at the correct depth and orientation.
Water thoroughly.

Examples: Blackberry, Camellia, Lemon, Rhododendron, Raspberry.

Advantages: Effective for plants that produce root suckers; useful for difficult-to-seed plants.
Disadvantages: Limited to plants that readily produce suckers; requires careful handling to avoid damage.

Plant propagation by layering :

Aspect	Details
Definition	Developing roots on a stem while it is still attached to the parent plant. The rooted stem, known as a layer, is then detached to become a new plant growing on its own roots.
Advantages	1. Easy method, requiring less care and arrangement. 2. Nutrients supplied by the mother plant. 3. Larger plant obtained initially. 4. Suitable for plants not easily started from cuttings.
Disadvantages	1. Costly method. 2. Slow process. 3. Limited number of plants can be propagated. 4. Generally shallow-rooted plants. 5. Interferes with cultivation. 6. Requires individual attention. 7. Rootstock benefits cannot be exploited.
Classification of Layering
Ground Layering
Tip Layering	– Plants with trailing shoots. – Insert shoot tip in soil; roots form at the bend. – Remove and plant new layer in late fall or early spring. – Examples: Purple/black raspberries, trailing blackberries.
Simple Layering	– Bend branch to ground, cover with soil leaving terminal end exposed. – Roots form at bent portion. – Separate rooted stem from the mother plant. – Examples: Bougainvillea, Jasmine, Rangoon creeper.
Compound/Serpentine Layering	– Similar to simple layering with multiple covered and exposed sections. – Roots form at covered portions. – Separate rooted sections from the mother plant. – Examples: Bougainvillea, Jasmine, Rangoon creeper.
Mound (Stool) Layering	– Cut plant to ground level, heap soil around new shoots. – Girdle shoots and treat with growth regulators. – Water regularly. – Separate rooted shoots and transplant. – Examples: Apple rootstocks, Guava, Litchi, Quince.
Trench Layering	– Lay plant or branch flat in a trench, cover with soil. – Promote root formation by adding soil at intervals. – Remove soil and cut rooted shoots. – Transplant rooted shoots. – Examples: Apple rootstocks, Litchi, Quince.
Air Layering (Gootee or Marcottage)
Definition	Roots form on an aerial shoot with the rooting medium tied to the shoot.
Procedure	– Select a healthy branch of the previous season’s growth. – Make a girdle below a node by removing a strip of bark. – Scrape exposed surface to remove phloem/cambium – Treat with growth regulators if needed. – Cover girdled portion with moist propagating medium (e.g., sphagnum moss). – Tie medium with a polyethylene sheet to retain moisture. – Observe root development and separate rooted portion. – Transplant rooted shoot.
Examples	Crotons, Ficus, Fig, Guava, Phalsa, Pomegranate.

Plant Propagation by Grafting

Aspect	Details
Definition	Joining parts of two independent plants so they unite and grow together into a single plant.
Scion	The upper portion or shoot system of the new plant.
Rootstock	The lower portion or root system of the new plant.
Stion	The single plant obtained from the union of the stock and scion.
Methods of Grafting	Two main types: Attached Scion Methods and Detached Scion Methods.

Attached Scion Methods

Method	Details
Simple Inarching (Approach Grafting)	– Two independent, self-sustaining plants are grafted together. – Used for plants difficult to graft by other methods. – Examples: Guava, Mango, Sapota. – Procedure: Select healthy shoot and rootstock of similar size; make matching cuts; tie together tightly.

Method

Details

Simple Inarching (Approach Grafting)

– Two independent, self-sustaining plants are grafted together.

– Used for plants difficult to graft by other methods.

– Examples: Guava, Mango, Sapota.

– Procedure: Select healthy shoot and rootstock of similar size; make matching cuts; tie together tightly.

Detached Scion Methods

Method	Details
Pre-curing of Scion	– Select a partially matured scion shoot; defoliate retaining petioles. – Leave on tree for 7-10 days until buds swell. – Separate pre-cured scion for grafting.
Side Grafting	Various methods including veneer grafting.
Veneer Grafting	– Used for small potted plants and in situ grafting. – Procedure: Make a shallow cut on stock; prepare scion with matching cuts; insert scion; tie firmly. Examples: Avocado, Mango.
Apical Grafting	Various methods including epicotyl and softwood grafting.
Epicotyl Grafting	– Done on young seedlings (10 days old). – Examples: Cashew, Mango. – Procedure: Make vertical slit on seedling; prepare scion with wedge shape; insert scion; tie firmly; water regularly.
Softwood Grafting	– Developed for small and young rootstocks. – Examples: Cashew, Mango. – Procedure: Raise rootstock seedlings; decapitate top; prepare scion with wedge shape; insert scion; tie firmly; water regularly.

Plant Propagation by Budding

Aspect	Details
Definition	Grafting method where a single bud with a piece of bark (with or without wood) is used as scion material.
Methods of Budding	Includes Shield (T) Budding, Inverted T-Budding, Patch Budding, and Ring Budding.

Methods of Budding

Method	Details
Shield (T) Budding	– Cuts on stock resemble the letter “T”. – Used for fruit trees and ornamental plants. – Examples: Citrus, Rose. – Procedure: Make T-cut on stock; prepare bud stick; insert bud; wrap tightly exposing only the bud.
Inverted T-Budding	– Used in heavy rainfall areas. – Procedure: Similar to T-budding but with an inverted T-cut.
Patch Budding	– Regular patch of bark removed and replaced with bud patch. – Examples: Ber, Citrus, Cocoa, Rubber. – Procedure: Make cuts on stock and bud stick; insert bud patch; wrap tightly exposing the bud.
Ring Budding	– Ring of bark with bud fitted into a ring removed from the stock. Examples: Cinchona. – Procedure: Make transverse and vertical cuts on stock and bud stick; insert bud ring; tie firmly.

Advanced Grafting Techniques

Method	Details
Double Working	– Overcomes incompatibility between stock and scion. – Provides resistance to drought, cold, pests, or dwarfing effects. – Procedure: Insert intermediate stem piece between stock and scion.
Top Working	– Changes the variety of an existing tree. – Procedure: Use methods like cleft grafting on main branches; retain nurse branches until union is successful; graft remaining branches in the second year if necessary.

Method

Details

Double Working

– Overcomes incompatibility between stock and scion.

– Provides resistance to drought, cold, pests, or dwarfing effects.

– Procedure: Insert intermediate stem piece between stock and scion.

Top Working

– Changes the variety of an existing tree.

– Procedure: Use methods like cleft grafting on main branches; retain nurse branches until union is successful; graft remaining branches in the second year if necessary.

Clonal Propagation

Aspect	Details
Definition	The reproduction of a group of plants from a single plant by vegetative propagation, resulting in plants with the same genetic constitution and uniformity when grown under the same conditions.
Characteristics	– Genetically uniform material derived from a single individual parent. – All plants of a clone are true to the parent in growth and performance. Utilizes vegetative methods such as cuttings, divisions, budding, grafting, and bulb lets.
Importance	– Ensures uniformity and true-to-type characteristics. – Essential for perpetuating heterozygous and sterile plants. – Used in commercial crops and horticultural varieties like potato, tea, banana, onion, turnip, and many others.
Applications	– Establishment of clones for commercial crops. – Evolution of new varieties in vegetatively propagated plants through clonal selection and propagation.

Steps in Production and Maintenance of a Clone

Step	Details
1. Selection of Stock Plants	– Choose pedigree and pathogen-free, true-to-type stock plants.
2. Maintenance of Stocks	– Keep stocks in a disease-free condition. – Regularly rouge off-types to maintain genetic uniformity.
3. Propagation and Distribution	– Propagate and distribute the selected and maintained stock plants.

Micro Propagation

Aspect	Details
Definition	The multiplication of plants in aseptic conditions and artificial growth media from plant parts like meristem tip, callus, embryos, anthers, axillary buds, etc.
Purpose	To regenerate true-to-type and disease-free plants from a small plant piece in an aseptic environment, rapidly and throughout the year.

Merits of Micro Propagation

Merit	Explanation
Rapid Multiplication	Tissue culture enables the quick multiplication of true-to-type plants year-round.
Regeneration from Small Plant Parts	A new plant can be regenerated from a tiny piece, unlike conventional methods requiring a larger shoot.
Space Efficiency	Large numbers of plants can be grown in culture tubes in a small space with uniform growth, rather than in large nursery areas.
Disease-Free Plants	Plants produced through tissue culture are free from diseases.
New Cultivar Development	Tissue culture combined with somatic hybridization helps in evolving new cultivars quickly.
Facilitates Transport and Storage	Micro propagation aids in the long-distance transport of propagation materials and the long-term storage of clonal materials.
Effective for Certain Plants	Especially useful for plants that do not breed true from seeds, have non-viable seeds, or where conventional propagation is expensive (e.g., Orchids, Bananas).

Demerits of Micro Propagation

Demerit	Explanation
High Setup and Maintenance Costs	Establishing and maintaining a tissue culture laboratory is expensive and may not be cost-effective for all horticultural plants.
Need for Skilled Manpower	Tissue culture techniques require skilled personnel.
Risk of Infection	Slight infections can damage entire batches of plants.
Potential for Genetic Mutations	Some genetic modifications (mutations) may occur, affecting the quality of the produce.
Survival Challenges	Seedlings grown in artificial conditions may struggle to survive when transferred to normal environmental conditions.

Methods of Micro Propagation

Method	Description
Meristem Culture	Using meristematic tissues for plant regeneration.
Callus Culture	Culturing callus tissues to regenerate plants.
Cell Culture	Growing isolated plant cells in culture to regenerate plants.
Embryo Culture	Culturing plant embryos to produce new plants.
Protoplast Culture	Fusion of two protoplasts with different genetic makeups to produce hybrid cells.
Shoot Apex Grafting	Using the shoot apex for grafting purposes.
Pollen Grain Culture	Culturing pollen grains to produce new plants.

Term	Definition
In vitro	Latin for “in glass”; refers to reactions, responses, or experiments conducted in an artificial environment, isolated from the whole organism.
In vivo	Latin for “in living”; refers to biological processes that occur within the whole living organism.

Apomixis

Aspect	Details
Definition	A phenomenon where an asexual reproductive process occurs instead of the normal sexual reproductive process, leading to the production of embryos without fertilization.
Resulting Seedlings	Known as apomictic seedlings, they are identical to their mother plants and similar to plants raised through other vegetative means, having the same genetic makeup as the mother plant.

Kinds of Apomixis

Type	Description
Obligate Apomixis	Plants produce only apomictic embryos.
Facultative Apomixis	Plants produce both apomictic and sexual seedlings.

Types of Apomixis

Type	Description	Examples
Recurrent Apomixis	Embryo develops from the diploid egg cell or other diploid cells of the embryo sac without fertilization.	Onion, Raspberry, Apple, etc.
Non-Recurrent Apomixis	Embryo develops directly from the haploid egg cell or other haploid cells of the embryo sac, resulting in haploid plants that are sterile and cannot continue for more than one generation.	Solanum nigrum, Lilium spp.
Adventitious Apomixis	Embryo develops from any diploid sporophytic cell (e.g., cells of the nucellus or integument), leading to diploid new embryos.	Citrus, Opuntia
Vegetative Apomixis (Bulbils)	Flowers in an inflorescence are replaced by bulbils or vegetative buds that often sprout into new plants while still on the mother plant.	Allium, Agave, Diascorea, Pao
Polyembryony	Two or more embryos are present within a single seed, leading to more than one seedling arising from the seed. The extra embryos or seedlings can originate from various parts such as nucellus or seed coats.	Citrus, Mango, Jamun, Rose apple

Examples of Polyembryony

Origin of Extra Embryos	Examples
Nucellus (Nucellar Embryony)	Citrus, Mango
Seed Coats (Integuments) or Antipodals	Rare, seen in Mango
Multiple Nuclei in Embryo Sac	Various plants
Cleavage of the Embryo	Common occurrence

Characteristics of Polyembryonic Seedlings

Characteristic	Details
Uniformity and True to Parent	Like other vegetatively propagated plants.
Origin	Derived by mitosis from maternal tissue, not meiosis.
Characteristics of Sexual Seedlings	Possess juvenility, vigor, and freedom from virus diseases.
Examples	Citrus, Mango, Jamun, Rose apple

Differentiating Polyembryonic and Sexual Seedlings

Method	Details
Vigor	More vigorous seedlings are generally considered polyembryonic.
Selection	By rejecting about 10% of the weaker and weakest seedlings, one can obtain fairly uniform polyembryonic seedlings.

Aspect	Details
Definition	Incompatibility between grafted parts (stock and scion) of different plants resulting in unsuccessful graft union and failure of the plant to develop satisfactorily.
Examples	– Apple on pear – Pear on quince – Apricot on almond
Types of Incompatibility
1. Translocated Incompatibility	Characteristics: – Involves phloem degeneration. – Development of brown line or necrotic area in the bark due to movement of toxic materials through the phloem. – Cannot be overcome by inserting an intermediate stock.
	Symptoms: – Visible necrosis or discoloration in the bark. – Poor or stunted growth at the graft site.
	Examples: – Typically observed in some combinations like apple on pear.
2. Localized Incompatibility	Characteristics: – Incompatibility reactions occur at the graft joint. – Due to repulsive action between stock and scion. – May be resolved by inserting a mutually compatible interstock between them.
	Symptoms:- Poor union at the graft site. – Visible stress or deterioration at the graft junction. – Reduced growth or vigor at the grafted area.
	Examples: – Observed in cases where the direct contact between stock and scion is problematic, such as in certain combinations of citrus or stone fruits.

Training and Pruning formatted in a tabular format:

Aspect	Details
Definition	Training: The judicious removal of plant parts to develop a proper shape for bearing a heavy crop load. Pruning: The judicious removal of plant parts (root, leaf, flower, fruit, etc.) to obtain a good and qualitative yield.
Objectives	Training: Develops proper shape and framework. – Ensures structural support for heavy crops. – Facilitates better production and harvesting. Pruning: – Improves plant health. – Enhances fruit quality and yield.
Training Terminology	Trunk: The main stem of the plant. Head: The point on the trunk where first branches arise. Scaffold Branches: Main branches from the head. Crotch: Angle between scaffold limb and trunk. Leader: Main growing stem. Water Shoot: Vigorous unbranched shoot. Water Sucker: Growth on rootstock portion.
Reasons for Training	– Wild growth without symmetry. – Unpruned trees delay bearing. – Close spacing makes intercultural operations difficult. – Shaded branches wither. – Excessive vegetative growth reduces productivity. – Weak framework prone to damage.
Training Systems	1. Central Leader System – Trunk extends from soil surface to tree top. – Main branches grow vertically, side branches grow outward. – Trees develop strong crotches but may have shaded interiors and difficulty in harvesting. 2. Open Centre System – Main stem is beheaded early to induce lateral branches. – Produces a low head with the bulk of crop closer to the ground. – Allows more light, facilitates operations, but branches may be weak and susceptible to damage. 3. Modified Leader System – Intermediate between Central Leader and Open Centre. – Leader grows unhampered initially. – Main branches develop at intervals, then the leader is headed back. – Results in low-headed tree with well-spaced limbs.
Principles of Training	– Branches should arise at intervals of at least 15cm. – Equally distributed around the stem. – Avoid upright branches; encourage medium crotches.

Pruning

Aspect	Details
Definition	The removal of excess or undesirable branches, shoots, roots, or other plant parts to allow the remaining parts to grow normally or as desired.
Objectives	– Remove surplus branches and direct sap flow. – Develop a strong framework for crop load and wind resistance. – Train plants to a definite shape (e.g., fence, hedge). – Thin branches for more light and fruitful inner wood. – Limit tree size for easier spraying and picking. – Regulate spacing and distribution of branches. – Distribute fruiting wood and balance vegetative and reproductive phases. – Improve spur growth and flower bud production. – Check disease spread. – Maintain plant vigor by removing water shoots.
Reasons for Pruning	– Eliminate useless branches to conserve nutrients. – Remove diseased twigs to check disease spread. – Promote fruit production on current flush in certain trees.
Plant Responses to Pruning	1. Activation of Buds: Invigorates buds below the cut, especially the nearest bud. 2. Dwarfing Response: Reduces overall growth due to foliage removal, leading to dwarfing. 3. Production of Water Shoots: Severe pruning stimulates growth of vigorous, unfruitful water shoots. 4. Delay in Bearing: Severe pruning delays bearing and can reduce yields.
Methods of Pruning	1. Thinning Out: Remove shoot entirely from inception 2. Trimming: Cut growth to a predetermined level (e.g., fence, hedge). 3. Heading Back: Cut branch to a stump, leaving a few buds. 4. Pollarding: Indiscriminately cut back shoots to reduce tree height. 5. Pinching (Tipping): Remove shoot tip to stop growth or encourage lateral buds. 6. Disbudding (Nipping/Rubbing): Nip or rub young buds to prevent sprouting. 7. De-blossoming: Remove surplus flowers to ensure regular crops.
Seasons of Pruning	– Depends on wood type, plant species, and flower bud formation time. – Diseased, dead, dried wood, and water shoots can be pruned any time. – Avoid pruning healthy branches during flowering/fruiting. – Prune deciduous trees before dormancy ends. – Prune evergreens before active growth or after harvest. – Summer pruning of deciduous trees and pruning evergreens in active growth season delays flower bud formation.
Pruning and Manuring	Post-pruning, trees need heavy manuring to compensate for loss of foliage and wood and to support new growth.
Care of Pruned Wounds	Protect cut ends and wounds from disease pathogens and pests by applying disinfectants like Bordeaux paste or Blitox paste immediately after pruning.

Causes and Remedies for Unfruitfulness in Fruit Trees

Cause Category	Specific Cause	Description	Remedy
Environmental Causes	Varietal Incompatibility	Some varieties don’t flower in specific localities	Top working with compatible local varieties
	Temperature Issues	Unfavorable temperatures prevent flowering	Oil emulsion sprays and DNOC
	High Temperature and Low Humidity	Retarded pollen germination in tropical plants	Provision of windbreaks, close planting, cover cropping
	Reduced Illumination	Overcrowding and shading reduce flowering	Thinning trees, pruning, removing shade
	Day Length	Long-day plants from northern latitudes don’t flower	Artificial lighting (not practical on orchard scale)
	Late Rains	Prolonged vegetative growth delays flowering	Deep ploughing, growth regulators
	Heavy Rains	Restricts pollinator activity, washes away pollen	Select varieties that don’t flower during rainy periods, alter pruning time
Nutritional Causes	Heavy Nitrogenous Manuring	Promotes vegetative growth, reducing flowering	Avoid heavy nitrogenous manuring, root pruning, restricted irrigation
	Overbearing	Previous season’s heavy bearing exhausts the tree	Apply complete manure mixture post-harvest
	Nutrient Deficiency	Weak shoots cause flower drop	Urea spray post-fruit set
	Carbohydrate Reserves	Lack of carbohydrates causes sparse flowering	Ringing and girdling (not regularly)
	Adverse Growth Features	Water suckers drain the tree, reducing flowering	Prune water suckers, manage irrigation carefully
	Element Deficiencies	Reduce flowering and fruit set	Composite mineral spray, soil reclamation for alkalinity
	Pruning and Manuring	Heavy manuring and severe pruning prolong pre-bearing period	Prune young branches, rub off axillary buds
	Old Trees	Inadequate nutrition and neglect	Heavy manuring, hard pruning, mineral sprays, frequent irrigation, pest and disease protection
Inherent Causes	Low Female Flower Proportion	Some mango varieties have low female flower proportion	No specific remedy
	Structural and Habit Features	Heterostyly and dichogamy restrict pollen availability	Ensure sufficient population of trees and pollinators
	Pollen Quantity	Inadequate pollen reduces fruit set	Use growth regulators
	Self-Sterility	Some varieties are self-sterile	Plant compatible varieties
	Intersterility	Intersterility between varieties	Provide compatible pollinizers, mixed pollen sprays, growth regulators
	Triploidy and Distant Crosses	Low fruit set due to genetic issues	Use chemical aids
	Ovule and Embryo Issues	Defective ovule development and embryo abortion	Largely varietal, minimal alteration possible
Biological Causes	Pollinator Absence	Lack of pollinating agents	Rear bee colonies
	Specific Insect Symbiosis	Specific insects required for pollination	Rear specific insects or use alternative methods
	Pests and Diseases	Pests and diseases reduce flowering and fruit set	Suitable pest and disease control measures
Cultural Causes	Excessive Irrigation	Poor root aeration due to excessive watering	Increase irrigation intervals, improve drainage
	Weeds and Intercrops	Competition for nutrients and water	Remove weeds, adequate manuring, avoid clashing intercrops
	Timing of Cultivation	Ploughing during flowering causes flower drop	Avoid deep cultivation during flowering
	Severe Pruning	Encourages water shoots, reduces flowering	Prune to a strong lateral, follow proper pruning techniques

General Practices

Ensure good drainage, timely irrigation, proper manuring, and cultural practices.
Select suitable varieties for the locality and growing conditions.

Use of Plant Growth Regulators in Fruit Production

Aspect of Growth/Development	Growth Regulator	Application	Effect/Remark
Rooting of Cuttings	Auxins (IBA, IAA, IPA, NAA)	100-500 ppm (long dip), 10,000-20,000 ppm (quick dip)	Promotes rooting, used in herbaceous, semi-hardwood, and hardwood cuttings
Layering	Auxins (IBA, IAA)	Applied as powder or lanolin paste	Promotes root formation in air layering (e.g., guava, pomegranate)
Grafting and Budding	Auxins	Dipped in auxin solution before grafting	Promotes early union and better success in grafted plants
Control of Flowering	NAA, Cycocel, Alar, Ethrel	NAA (0.25-0.5 mg), Cycocel (500 ppm), Alar (5000 ppm), Ethrel (100-200 ppm)	Regulates flowering in crops like pineapple and mango, extends flowering period in Jasminum grandiflorum
Fruit Set	IAA, IBA, IPA, NAA, 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, GA	Auxins (10-20 ppm), GA (10-100 ppm)	Improves fruit set in many crops, specific applications for grapes, chillies, etc.
Fruit Drop	2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, NAA	2,4-D (20 ppm), NAA (10-15 ppm), 2,4,5-T (15-30 ppm)	Controls pre-harvest fruit drop in apples, pears, citrus, mango, guava
Parthenocarpy	IAA, IBA, NAA, NOA, NAD, 2,4-D, IPA, GA	Various concentrations depending on crop	Induces seedless fruit set in vegetables and fruits like grapes, bananas
Fruit Ripening	2,4,5-T, Ethrel, 2,4-D, Ethephon	2,4,5-T (25-100 ppm), Ethrel (2500 ppm), 2,4-D (16 ppm)	Hastens or delays ripening in fruits like bananas, plums, peaches, tomatoes
Fruit Size and Quality	GA	40 ppm	Increases berry size in grape varieties (Anab-e-shahi, Kismis, Bhokri)
Sex Expression	Ethrel, GA	Ethrel (100-250 ppm), GA (varied)	Modifies sex ratio in cucurbitaceous vegetables, induces male sterility in crops like bhendi

Summary of Key Plant Growth Regulators

Growth Regulator	Type	Function
Auxins (IAA, IBA, IPA, NAA)	Growth Promoter	Rooting, cell division, elongation, fruit set, and parthenocarpy
Gibberellins (GA)	Growth Promoter	Stem elongation, flowering, fruit set, fruit size, and quality
Cytokinins	Growth Promoter	Cell division, shoot formation, delay of senescence
Ethylene	Growth Inhibitor	Fruit ripening, flowering, sex expression
Abscisic Acid	Growth Inhibitor	Growth retardant, promotes dormancy, stress response

Practical Applications in Horticulture

Propagation of Plants: Inducing rooting in stem cuttings and layers using auxins.
Grafting and Budding: Promoting early union and success in grafting through auxin application.
Control of Flowering: Regulating flowering times in crops like pineapple and mango.
Fruit Set and Drop: Enhancing fruit set and controlling pre-harvest fruit drop with auxins and gibberellins.
Parthenocarpy: Inducing seedless fruits in various vegetables and fruits.
Fruit Ripening: Hastening or delaying fruit ripening using ethylene and other regulators.
Fruit Size and Quality: Increasing fruit size and quality with gibberellins.
Sex Expression: Modifying sex ratio in vegetables, inducing male sterility for hybridization.

Plant growth regulators play a crucial role in optimizing fruit production by influencing various physiological processes, leading to improved yield and quality.

Preparation of growth regulators

Form	Preparation Method	Storage
Solution Form	1. Dissolve 1 gm of growth regulator in 50 ml of ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, or methylated spirit. 2. Dilute with an equal volume of water to make 100 ml of solution containing 10,000 ppm.	Store in well-stoppered bottles in a refrigerator.
	3. This acts as a stock solution for further dilutions with distilled or de-ionized water.	The solutions retain their activity indefinitely.
Dust Form	1. Dissolve 1 gm of growth regulator in 40 ml of methylated spirit or 95% alcohol. 2. Stir into 100 gm of pharmaceutical talc to form a smooth paste. 3. Perform in a dark room away from strong light.	Store in a closed opaque container in a refrigerator.
	4. Stir the paste while drying until it becomes a fine dry powder.	The prepared dust remains active for six months or more.
	5. Before use, dilute the growth regulator by mixing the stock with talc powder.
Lanolin Pastes	1. Melt 200 gm of lanolin. 2. Thoroughly stir 1 gm of growth regulator into the molten lanolin. 3. Allow it to cool to form a paste containing 500 ppm of growth regulator.	Store in a well-stoppered opaque glass vessel in a refrigerator.
	4. Used particularly for air layering (now considered obsolete for cuttings).	The prepared paste will keep indefinitely.

Mango Cultivation

Aspect	Details
Scientific Name	Mangifera indica L
Family	Anacardiaceae
Origin	Indo-Burma region
Importance	– Most important tropical fruit in India – Known as the “king of fruits” – Rich in vitamins and minerals – Popular for its delicious quality – One of the best fruits worldwide
Cultural Significance	– Sacred tree for Hindus – Blossoms used in worship – Leaves used in festoons for doorways
Global Production	– India contributes about 11 million tonnes – 58% of the world’s production (19 million tonnes) – Cultivated on 12.3 lakh hectares – 22% of total area under fruits in India – 23% of total fruit production in India
Commercial Varieties in AP	– Neelum, Baneshan, Bangalora, Rumani, Khader, Mulgoa, Panchadarakalasa, China Suvarnarekha, Cherukurasam, Janardhanpasand
Hybrid Varieties	– Neeleshan: Neelum x Baneshan – Neelgoa: Neelum x Yerra Mulgoa – Swarna Jahangir: Chinna Suvarnarekha x Jahangir – AU Rumani: Mulgoa x Rumani – KMH-1: Cheruku Rasam x Khader – Manjeera: Rumani x Neelum – Arka Aruna: Banganapalli x Alphonso – Arka Puneet: Alphonso x Banganapalli – Arka Anmol: Alphonso x Janardhanpasand – Arka Neelkiran: Alphonso x Neelum – Amrapali: Dashehari x Neelum – Mallika: Neelum x Dashehari – Ratna: Neelum x Alphonso – Sindhu: Back cross progeny of Ratna – Prabhasankar: Bombay x Kalaepad – Mahamudbahar: Bombay x Kalaepad – Jawahar: Gulabkhas x Mahamooda Bahar – PKM-1: Chinna Suvarnarekha x Neelum – PKM-2: Neelum x Alphonso
Utility-Based Varieties	– Table Varieties: Baneshan, Neelum, Bangalora, Rumani, Alphonso, Mahamooda, Goa Bunder – Juicy Varieties: Chinna Rasam, Pedda Rasam, Cheruku Rasam, Kothapalli Kobbari, Panchadara Kalasa, Panakalu, Phirangi Laddu – Table and Juicy Varieties: Chinna Suvarnarekha, Peter – Off-season Varieties: Neelum, Bangalora, Baramasi, Rumani, Royal Special
Polyembryonic Varieties	– Indian Varieties: Bappakai, Chandrakaran, Bellary, Goa, Kurukkan, Nileswar Dwarf, Olour, Pahutan, Salem, Mazagoaon, Mylepalium, Vellaikolumban – Introduced Varieties: Apricot, Simmonds, Higgins, Pico, Sabre, Saigon, Strawberry, Cambodiana, Turpentine, Carabao
Climate Requirements	– Thrives from sea level to 1500 meters – Cannot be grown commercially above 600 meters – Temperature range: 0°C to 45°C (optimum near 25°C) – Requires frost-free dry period during flowering – High rainfall (75-375 cm per annum) and dry summer – Sensitive to rain during flowering and strong winds during fruiting
Soil Requirements	– Grows on a variety of soils (alluvial to lateritic) – Suitable pH: 5.5-7.0 – Ideal soil: Deep (2.0-2.5m), well-drained, good drainage, permeability, fair water holding capacity, ground water at 3-4m depth – Avoid very poor, shallow, alkaline, rocky, and calcareous soils
Propagation Methods	– Monoembryonic varieties: Vegetative propagation – Polyembryonic varieties: Seed propagation – Inarching (approach grafting) – Veneer grafting (detached scion method) – Air layering with growth regulators (limited success) – Shield and patch budding (Far East countries) – Rootstocks: Pahutan, Olour (vigorous), Rumani, Kalepad (dwarfing), Vellaikolumban (dwarfing), Moovandan, Nekkare (salt tolerant), Pulima (prolific)
Planting and Spacing	– Planting: Done during rainy season – Pits: 3’x3’x3′ size, filled with manure – Spacing: 10x10m for grafts, 12x12m for seedlings – High-density planting: 5×3, 5×2.5, 4×4, 3×2.5, 2.5×2.5m – Staking and watering immediately after planting
Intercrops and Interculture	– Suitable intercrops: Vegetables (bhendi, cowpea, potato, cucurbits), legumes (groundnut, bean), dwarf banana, cover crops (sesbania, Crotalaria juncea) – Young plants: Remove flowers during first 3-4 years – Weed removal: Required at least twice a year – Pruning: Remove dead, diseased, and dried parts and branches within 3 feet above ground level
Irrigation Requirements	– Young plants: Frequent irrigation (twice a week in hot weather) – Bearing trees: Avoid profuse irrigation 2-3 months before flowering, beneficial from February to June – Irrigation method: Basin system
Manuring	– Pre-bearing age: Focus on rapid growth and strong framework development – Bearing trees: Aim for good cropping, regular bearing, high fruit quality

Manuring Details for Mango Orchards

Manuring for Non-Bearing Trees

Description	Details
Nitrogen	Liberal doses, particularly needed in heavy quantities for healthy and fast growth
Phosphorous	Liberal doses, essential for root development, respiration, and carbohydrate translocation
Potassium	Reasonable amounts, aids in fruit development, increases fruit quality, and controls fruit drop
Nitrogen Application	Advantageous to apply a substantial portion in the form of organic matter to improve soil texture and moisture holding capacity, enhancing root development

Manuring for Bearing Trees

Description	Details
Manurial Programme Objective	Secure sufficient vegetative growth early in the season and ensure regular bearing with superior quality
Nitrogen Application	Heavy dose a little earlier than flowering in the “on” year to initiate vegetative growth and suppress bud differentiation, reducing cropping in the “on” year and promoting vegetative shoots production

Manurial Schedule

Age of the Plant (Years)	FYM (Kg)	Nitrogen (g/plant)	Phosphorous (g/plant)	Potash (g/plant)
1-3	5-20	50-100	40-80	100-200
4-6	25-50	100-200	80-100	200-400
7-9	60-90	200-250	120-160	400-600
10 and above	100	250	160	600

Application Method

Description	Details
Young Orchards	Manures and fertilizers applied in a shallow ring dug around the base of the tree
Old Bearing Orchards	Broadcasted under the canopy of the plant, leaving 30-60 cm from the trunk and thoroughly mixed into the soil

Foliar Application

Timing	Details
After Harvest	Urea @ 1-2%
After Flowering and Marble Stage	Improves fruit set and reduces fruit drop

Training and Pruning

Description	Details
Training	Essential to give proper shape; 75 cm of the main stem should be free from branching; main branches spaced to grow in different directions
Pruning	Conducted after harvest to remove old inflorescences, lower branches, diseased/dead/broken branches, and unfruitful shoots; opens the top of aged trees for sunlight and ventilation; spray with Bordeaux mixture or copper oxychloride, and paste cut ends with Bordeaux or copper oxychloride paste

Problems in Mango Cultivation

Alternate (Biennial) and Irregular Bearing

Description	Details
Causes	Inherent character, nutritional deficiency, hormonal imbalance, climatic factors, and adverse weather
Internal Factors	Physiological, genetic, nutritional, sex ratio, and hormonal imbalance
External Factors	Rain, wind, low temperatures, cloudy weather, light, pests, and diseases
Suggested Measures	Planting regular bearers, ploughing and harrowing, applying fertilizers, deblossoming, ringing, inducing rest, pruning, smudging, hybridization, windbreaks, spraying Ethrel, and using growth retardants like Placlobutrazol

Mango Malformation

Description	Details
Vegetative Malformation	Excessive vegetative branches, swollen, short internodes, compact rosette-like shoots
Floral Malformation	Clustered, round inflorescences with non-viable flowers
Causes	Various causes including fungal origin (Fusarium moniliformis)
Control Measures	Destruction of infected plants, fungicide sprays, pruning and pasting, deblossoming, and resistant varieties

Spongy Tissue

Description	Details
Causes	Physiological disorder due to high temperature, convective heat, and post-harvest exposure to sunlight
Susceptible Varieties	Alphonso
Remedial Measures	Sod culture, mulching, growing hybrids free from spongy tissue, and harvesting three-fourths matured fruits

Fruit Drop

Description	Details
Causes	External: Unfavourable climate, diseases, pests; Internal: Poor soil, pollination issues, self-incompatibility, embryo abortion, drought
Measures	Spraying 2,4-D or NAA, providing pollinators, maintaining soil moisture, windbreaks

harvesting and yield in mango cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Harvesting Practices	– Avoid knocking down or violently shaking the trees. – Use a step ladder to pick fruits that are hanging high. – Do not climb the tree. – Harvest fruits using canvass bags or padded baskets. – Retain a small fruit stalk to improve storage quality.
Effect of Injury	– Injured or bruised fruits lose keeping quality and may not be suitable for distant markets.
Yield Factors	– Age of the plant – Soil fertility – Climatic conditions Variety – Type of plant material (graft or seedling) – Orchard management
Yield Estimates	– 5 Years Old Tree: ~200 fruits – 10-20 Years Old Tree: 500-1000 fruits during an “on” year – 20-40 Years Old Tree: 1000-3000 fruits

Banana cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Name	Musa spp. Family: Musaceae
Origin	Tropical regions of South East Asia (Assam, Burma, Indo-China region)
Historical Significance	– Considered one of the oldest fruits known to mankind. – Referred to in biblical legends as “Tree of wisdom” and “Apple of Paradise”. – The name Musa is derived from Arabic and Sanskrit terms for “Tree of paradise”.
Importance	– Fruits: Eaten fresh, used in breakfast foods, or cooked as vegetables. – Products: Banana chips, fig, soft drinks, flour, and jam. – Uses: Banana flour from unripe fruits, powder from ripe fruits, starch from pseudo stem, and paperboards from pseudo stems. – Leaves used as plates in South India, sheaths and leaves for making ropes. – Musa textiles known for strong fibers.
Nutritional Value	– Good source of Vitamin A, fair source of Vitamin C and B2. – Rich in minerals: Magnesium, sodium, potassium, phosphorus. Fair source of calcium and iron.
Production in India	– Second largest fruit produced after mango. – Accounts for 21.87% of total fruit production from 10.49% of the area.
Varieties	– Table Varieties: Poovan, Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Grand Nine, Rasthali, Grosmichel, Virupakshi, Nendran, Monthan. – Culinary Varieties: Monthan, Yenugu bontha, Boodidha bontha. – Hill Bananas: Virupakhi (also known as Sirumalai, Mala Vazhai).
Climate	– Tropical crop, grows in warm, humid, rainy climates. – Ideal temperature: 10-40°C (average 23°C). – High rainfall (~100 mm/month). – Unfavorable conditions: Low temperatures (<10°C), strong hot winds, water stagnation. – Altitude: Up to 1500 m above sea level.
Soils	– Requires well-drained soil with ample organic matter. – Prefers loamy, well-drained clay soils. – Avoid saline and heavily acidic soils. – Suitable even for slightly alkaline soils.
Propagation	– Suckers: Water suckers (not preferred) and Sword suckers (preferred). – Rhizomes: Dug out, stored under shade, and planted after 2 months. Rhizomes can be cut into 1 kg pieces for planting.
Preparation	– Sucker Preparation: Select 3-4 months old suckers, behead the stem at 20-30 cm height, remove old roots, dip in 0.1% ceresan solution.
Land Preparation	– Deep ploughing, harrowing, and leveling. – Dig pits (45x45x45 cm), expose for weathering. – Mix soil with FYM, castor or neem cake, wood ash, and super phosphate. – Apply lindane dust to control weevils.
Planting	– Best done at the onset of monsoon (June-July). – In heavy rainfall areas like Malabar, plant after monsoon (September-October). – Ensure optimal growth conditions during the flower bud initiation stage (4-5 months after planting).

Spacing and Plant Density

Variety	Spacing (meters)	No. of Plants/ha
Poovan, Monthan, Rasthali, Nendran	2.1 x 2.1	2150
Dwarf Cavendish	1.8 x 1.8	3000
Robusta	1.8 x 1.8	3000
Nendran	2.0 x 2.0	2500
Hill Bananas	2.4 x 3.0	1350
Hill Bananas	4.8 x 3.0	670
Hill Bananas	4.8 x 4.8	420

Cultural Operations

Operation	Description
Desuckering	Remove unwanted suckers; leave 1-2 suckers post-flowering.
Trashing	Remove dried, diseased, and decayed plant material.
Mattocking	Cut the plant stem in stages 30-45 days post-harvest.
Wrapping of Bunches	Cover bunches with polythene or gunny cloth for protection.
Tipping	Remove the heart or male bud to improve bunch appearance.
Removal of Floral Remnants	Remove dried floral remnants to prevent fungal diseases.
Propping	Use poles to support plants and prevent falling.
Earthing Up	Ridge soil around base for drainage and root development.
Weeding	Remove weeds manually or with herbicides.
Nutrient Sprays	Spray 2% urea and potassium dihydrogen phosphate for growth.

Cropping

Aspect	Details
Flowering	About 9 months after planting.
Harvest Time	Dwarf varieties: 11-14 months; Tall cultivars: 14-16 months.
Fruits Ready	3-4 months after flowering.
Harvest Indicators	Top leaves drying, color change, floral ends shed, rounded angles.
Export Standards	Harvest at ¾ full maturity.

Yield

Type	Yield (tonnes/ha)
Tall Cultivars	15-20 tonnes/ha
Dwarf Varieties	30-40 tonnes/ha
General Yield	15-40 tonnes/ha depending on variety and management.

Harvest Techniques for Bananas

Aspect	Description
Harvest Time	Fruits are harvested when the top leaves start drying, and the fruit color changes from deep green to light green. Harvesting typically occurs when the fruit is about three-fourths mature.
Indications of Maturity	– Top leaves drying – Color change from deep green to light green – Tendency of floral ends to shed with a slight touch – Fruits are plump with rounded angles
Harvesting Method	– Entire bunch is cut with a one-foot long stalk – Use a knife or sickle to cut the stalk without damaging the bunch – Ensure the latex flow has ceased before handling or packing
Handling post-harvest	– After harvest, allow the latex to cease flowing for about 15 minutes – Avoid contact with soil to prevent contamination – Pack the bunches properly to prevent damage during transportation
Packing	– Use padded or cushioned materials for packing – Avoid stacking too many bunches on top of each other to prevent bruising – Pack in well-ventilated boxes to avoid excessive moisture buildup
Transportation	– Transport in well-ventilated containers – Ensure that the bunches are not subjected to extreme temperatures or rough handling during transit – For export, ensure compliance with international standards and regulations

Banana Yield per Hectare

Variety	Yield Range (Tonnes/Ha)	Description
Tall Cultivars	15-20 tonnes	These varieties generally produce lower yields compared to dwarf varieties.
Dwarf Varieties	30-40 tonnes	Dwarf varieties typically have higher yields due to their compact growth and higher fruit density.
Overall (Indian Conditions)	15-40 tonnes	Yield varies widely based on variety, agro-climatic conditions, and management practices.

Pest Control Tips for Banana Cultivation

Pest	Description	Control Measures
Banana Weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus)	A major pest that affects the rhizomes and pseudostems, causing plant weakening and stunting.	– Cultural Control: Remove and destroy infected plant parts. Use clean planting material. – Chemical Control: Apply insecticides like chlorpyrifos or neem oil to the soil. – Biological Control: Introduce natural enemies like nematodes.
Nematodes (Radopholus similis)	Soil-borne pests that damage roots, leading to poor plant growth and yield.	– Soil Solarization: Cover the soil with clear plastic to increase soil temperature and kill nematodes. – Crop Rotation: Alternate with non-host crops. – Chemical Control: Use nematicides like carbofuran.
Aphids (Pentalonia nigronervosa)	Small insects that suck sap from plants, causing stunted growth and potentially spreading diseases.	– Chemical Control: Apply insecticides like imidacloprid or pyrethroids. – Natural Predators: Encourage ladybugs and lacewings.
Spider Mites (Tetranychus spp.)	Tiny arachnids that cause leaf discoloration and webbing.	– Miticides: Use miticides such as abamectin or dicofol. – Biological Control: Introduce predatory mites like Phytoseiulus persimilis. – Environmental Control: Increase humidity around plants to make the environment less favorable for mites.
Fruit Flies (Drosophila spp.)	Insects that lay eggs in ripening fruit, causing decay.	– Trap and Kill: Use bait traps with a mix of yeast and sugar. – Fruit Protection: Cover bunches with polythene or cloth to prevent fly access. – Sanitation: Remove and destroy overripe or decayed fruit.
Leaf Spot Diseases (e.g., Sigatoka)	Fungal diseases that cause leaf spots, reducing photosynthesis.	– Fungicide Application: Use fungicides like propiconazole or copper-based products. – Cultural Practices: Remove and destroy infected leaves. – Plant Resistant Varieties: Use varieties resistant to leaf spot diseases.
Banana Skipper (Erionota thrax)	Caterpillars that feed on banana leaves, causing damage and reducing plant vigor.	– Chemical Control: Apply insecticides like spinosad. – Manual Removal: Handpick and destroy caterpillars.
Mealybugs (Pseudococcus spp.)	Small, soft-bodied insects that feed on plant sap and excrete honeydew, which attracts sooty mold.	– Chemical Control: Apply systemic insecticides like imidacloprid. – Natural Predators: Encourage or release natural enemies like lady beetles. – Manual Removal: Wipe off mealybugs with a cloth or brush.

General Pest Management Practices

Monitoring: Regularly inspect plants for signs of pests and diseases.
Sanitation: Keep the field clean and remove debris that may harbor pests.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Combine cultural, biological, and chemical controls for effective pest management.
Record Keeping: Maintain records of pest occurrences and control measures to improve management strategies

Lemon Cultivation: –

Category	Details
Botanical Name	Citrus spp.
Family	Rutaceae
Origin	Tropical and subtropical regions of Southeast Asia
Importance	Third most important fruit crop in India
Characteristics	– Juice sacks present – Lacks firm pulp – High in Vitamin C, vitamins, and pectin – Mild bitterness from Naringin – Rind rich in essential oils
Important Species	1. Sweet Orange (Citrus sinensis) 2. Mandarin Orange (Citrus reticulata) 3. Acid Lime (Citrus aurantifolia) 4. Lemon (Citrus limon) 5. Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) 6. Pummelo (Citrus grandis) 7. Citron (Citrus medica) 8. Sweet Lime (Citrus limettoides) 9. Gaganimma (Citrus pennivesiculata) 10. Vadlapudi Orange (Citrus madaraspatana) 11. Sour Orange (Citrus aurantium) 12. Rough Lemon (Citrus jamberi) 13. Rangapur Lime (Citrus limonia)
Important Cultivars in India	Sweet Orange: Sathgudi, Mosambi, Batavian, Malta, Malta Blood Red, Jaffa, Hamlin, Washington Navel Orange, Pineapple Mandarins: Nagapur Mandarin, Coorg Mandarin, Khasi Orange, Kinnow Mandarin, Ponkan, Satsuma Mandarin, Dancy Tangarin, Darjeeling or Sikkim Orange, Cleopatra Mandarin Limes: Acid Lime (Vikram, Pramalini, Chakradhar, Balaji), Key Lime, Mexican Lime, Tahiti Lime, Sweet Lime, Coorg Lime, Rangapur Lime, Sour Lime Lemons: Seed Varieties (Lisbon, Villa Franca, Eureka, Nepali Round, Nepali Oblong, Rajhamundry), Seedless Varieties (Malta, Lucknow, Italian)
Climate	– Sub-tropical preferred – Optimal temperature around 25°C – Avoid temperatures below -4°C, high humidity, and frost – Darjeeling Mandarin grows up to 2000m altitude
Soil	– Deep, well-drained soils – pH 5.5 to 7.5 preferred – Tolerates pH 4 to 9 – Avoid high calcium carbonate concentrations
Propagation	– Seeds: 45-90% polyembryony – Vegetative: Shield budding, T-budding – Rootstocks: Jamberi, Gajanimma, Trifoliate Orange, Karnakhatta, Sathgudi Seedling, Rangpur Lime, Acid Lime, Kichili, Pummelo, Wood Apple, Sweet Lime
Rootstocks	1. Jamberi: Vigorous, high germination, prone to decline 2. Gajanimma: Prolific but prone to gummosis and collar rot 3. Trifoliate Orange: Frost-resistant, dwarfs trees 4. Karnakhatta: Suitable for heavy soils 5. Sathgudi Seedling: Long-lived, good quality fruits 6. Rangpur Lime: Vigorous, disease-resistant 7. Acid Lime: Drought-resistant, slow-growing 8. Kichili: Drought-resistant 9. Pummelo: Dwarfs Sathgudi 10. Wood Apple: Reduces prebearing period, increases sweetness 11. Sweet Lime: Better quality fruits
Raising Rootstock Seedlings	– Sown in July-August – Germination in 20-30 days – Transplanting after 3-4 months
Selecting Bud Wood	– Collect from mature, healthy trees- Use wood from next to last or current growth flush- Trim to 20-25 cm; label and store properly
Budding	– Done in winter (July-Sept in South India; Oct-Dec in North India)- T-Budding or Shield budding at 9″ height- Use Jamberi and Rangapur Lime for sweet orange; Gajanimma for acid lime
Planting	– Preparation: Plough, remove vegetation, level land – Layout: Square system – Pits: ½m x ½m x ½m or 1m x 1m x 1m; add FYM, bone meal, wood ash, aldrin dust – Season: July to December (June/July for low rainfall; Oct-Dec for high rainfall)

Category	Details
Spacing	– Sweet Orange: 6-8 m – Mandarin Orange: 6-8 m – Acid Lime: 5-6 m – Lemon: 6-8 m – Pummelo: 6-8 m – Grapefruit: 6-8 m
Irrigation	– Requirement: High for satisfactory crop – Frequency: Once every 7-15 days depending on soil and weather – Method: Avoid direct trunk contact, extend basins as trees age – Critical Periods: Blossoming, fruiting, and maturity
Manures and Fertilizers	– Farmyard Manure and organic cakes (Castor, Neem, Pongamia) – Fertilizer Schedule: – Sathgudi: – 1 Year: 300 N, 70 P₂O₅, 80 K₂O – 2 Year: 600 N, 140 P₂O₅, 160 K₂O – 3 Year: 900 N, 210 P₂O₅, 240 K₂O – 4 Year: 1200 N, 280 P₂O₅, 320 K₂O – 5 Year & above: 1500 N, 350 P₂O₅, 400 K₂O – Acid Lime: – 1 Year: 375 N, 150 P₂O₅, 200 K₂O – 2 Year: 750 N, 300 P₂O₅, 400 K₂O – 3 Year: 1125 N, 450 P₂O₅, 600 K₂O – 4 Year: 1500 N, 600 P₂O₅, 800 K₂O – 5 Year & above: 1500 N, 600 P₂O₅, 800 K₂O – Fertilizer Application: Circular band at 120 cm radial distance, shallow placement – Nutrient Spray: Zinc Sulphate, Copper Sulphate, Magnesium Sulphate, Ferrous Sulphate, Borax, Manganese Sulphate, Lime, Urea
Training and Pruning	– Remove shoots in the first 40-50 cm – Keep plant center open – Remove cross twigs, water suckers, diseased/injured branches periodically
Interculture	– Dig basins, remove weeds – Superficial cultivation – Remove rootstock sprouts, water suckers, and dead wood
Intercrops	– Leguminous crops like soybean, gram, groundnut, cow peas, French bean, peas – Advisable during initial 3-4 years
Bahar Treatment	– Objective: To induce full crop in a specific season – Procedure: Reduce water in November-December, plough land, add manure, irrigate sparingly initially – Effects: New vegetative growth, profuse flowering and fruiting – Considerations: Harmful in the long run
Cropping	– Sweet Orange: Commercial crop in 5 years, full productivity in 8-10 years- Mandarins: Similar to sweet orange, 1-2 years longer- Seedling Trees: 8 years to bearing- Tree Life: Budded ~35 years, Seedling ~60 years
Fruit Ripening & Harvesting	– Ripening: 9 months after flowering – Harvesting: Varies by region and variety – Harvesting Method: Hand-picking, preferably after 8:00 AM, avoid cold-sensitive conditions – Maturity Indices: Color, juice content, soluble solids, and solids-to-acid ratio
Yield	– Sweet Orange: 600-800 fruits/tree, max 1200 – Mandarins: 1000-1500 fruits/tree, max 5000 – Acid Lime: 3000-6000 fruits/tree – Melons: 600-800 fruits/tree – Pummelo: 100 fruits – Grapefruit: 500 fruits

Grape cultivation and characteristics:

Category	Details
Botanical Name	Vitis vinifera
Family	Vitaceae
Origin	Armenia near Caspian Sea
Uses	– Table fruit – Wine production (European countries) – Raisins – Fresh juice – Jams
Nutritional Value	Rich in sugar (especially hexose), digestible, good source of Calcium, Phosphorous, Iron, and vitamins B1 and B2. Juice acts as a mild laxative and stimulant to kidneys.
Regions in India	Andhra Pradesh: Mahbubnagar, Rangareddy, Medak, Anathapur, Chittoor, Kurnool – Area: 1676 ha – Production: 33,520 tonnes
Climate	– Semi-arid subtropical – Requires warm, dry summers and cool winters – Not suitable for areas with >100 cm rainfall – Needs 90 days rain-free period post-pruning – Thrives in 4.5°C to 45°C temperature range
Soils	– Light, well-drained soils preferred – Water table > 2 meters – Suitable if soil depth ≥ 1 meter with no hard pan up to 2 meters – Tolerant to salinity and alkalinity but excessive lime is harmful
Varieties	– Bangalore Blue – Gulabi – Anab-e-Shahi – Dilkush – Patcha Draksha – Puas Seedless – Thompson Seedless – Beauty Seedless – Perlette
Hybrids	– Arkavati: Black Champa x Thompson Seedless – Arka Kanchan: Anab-e-Shahi x Queen of Vineyard – Arka Hans: Bangalore Blue x Anab-e-Shahi – Arka Shyam: Bangalore Blue x Black Champa – Arka Neelmani: Black Champa x Thompson Seedless – Arka Shweta: Anab-e-Shahi x Thompson Seedless – Arka Majestic: Anab-e-Shahi x Black Champa – Arka Chitra: Angoor Kalan x Anab-e-Shahi – Arka Soma: Anab-e-Shahi x Queen of Vineyard – Arka Trishna: Bangalore Blue x Queen of Vineyard – Arka Krishna: Bangalore Blue x Convent Large Black – Arka Urvashi: Hur x Beauty Seedless – Pusa Navarang: Madeleine Angavine x Ruby Red
Commercial Classifications	– Table Grapes: Thompson Seedless, Pusa Seedless, Perlette, Beauty Seedless, New Perlette, Anab-e-Shahi, Bhokri, Cardinal, Black Muscat, Early Muscat, Fakhri, Kandhari, Kale-Sahebi
	– Raisin Grapes: Thompson Seedless, Pusa Seedless, Kishmish, Black Corinth, Sultana, Muscat, Alexandria
	– Wine Grapes: Gross Column, Red Prince, Black Champa, Beauty Seedless, Cheema Sahebi
	– Sweet Juice Grapes: Bangalore Purple, Bangalore Blue, Gulabi, Concord, Pearl of Csaba
	– Canning Grapes: Thompson Seedless, Pusa Seedless, Perlette, Canner
Propagation	– Sexual: Less preferred due to poor germination and long period – Asexual/Vegetative: Preferred method – Methods: Cuttings, grafting, layering, budding – Cuttings: Made from one-season canes, 8-10 cm long, 25-30 cm in length, 3-4 buds. Plant in prepared beds, control pests with Aldrin or Heptachlor dust. Rooted cuttings ready in one year.
Rootstocks	– Used under nematode infestation, pests, diseases, and saline soils- Scion variety can be chip budded on suitable rootstocks

Grape Cultivation Overview

Category	Details
Rootstocks	– Phylloxera Resistant: St. George, Riparia – Nematode and Soil Salinity Resistant: Salt Creek – Nematode Resistant: Harmony, Dog Ridge
Spacing	– Bombay-Deccan: 2.5×2.5 m (Single Stake) – Punjab-Haryana: 3×3 m (Kniffin) – Bangalore Region: 5×6 m (Pendal/Bower/Overhead/Arbour/Mandwa) – Madurai Region: 8×9 m (Pendal/Bower/Overhead/Arbour/Mandwa) – Hyderabad Region: 5×9 m (Pendal/Bower/Overhead/Arbour/Mandwa)
Planting	– Land Preparation: Deep ploughing, tillage, leveling – Pits: 1m³ – Planting Time: October for unrooted cuttings, January/February for rooted cuttings – Grafting: July-August (Chip/Wedge Grafting)
Training Methods	– Head System: Simple, dwarf bush, suited for less vigorous varieties – Pendal System (Arbour/Bower): Vigorous growth, expensive, best for commercial varieties – Telephone System: Moderate vigor, better ventilation and light penetration, expensive – Kniffin System (Espalier): Moderately vigorous varieties, closer planting
Training System	– Head System: 2000-2500 plants/acre, 3’ height topping – Pendal System: Wires at 7’ height, 12 secondary arms per vine – Telephone System: Wires at 5’ height, 6-8 fruiting units per secondary arm – Kniffin System: Wires at 75cm, two pairs of laterals
Pruning	– Winter Pruning: November-December (North India), October (Bangalore) – Summer Pruning: March-April (A.P., Karnataka), July (Tamil Nadu) – Spur Pruned Varieties: e.g., Perlette, Beauty Seedless – Cane Pruned Varieties: e.g., Thompson Seedless
Manuring	– Planting Time: 50 kg FYM, 3 kg super phosphate, 5 kg castor/neem cake, 2 baskets of wood ash – Establishment (up to 2 years): 100 kg FYM, 2-3 kg castor/neem cake, 2-3 kg super phosphate, 250g Ammonium Sulphate, 125g Urea – From 3rd Year Onwards: Variable application based on season and pruning
Irrigation	– Initial Year: Frequent irrigation – April to June: 6-8 irrigations – Post-Monsoon to March: 8-10 irrigations – Each vine: 200 liters (winter), 300 liters (summer)
Inter-Culture	– Shallow tillage (8-10 cm depth) – Manual weeding, no intercrops
Fruit Thinning	– Increase berry size by 20%, improve quality, color, and maturity – Remove diseased, misshapen berries
Plant Growth Regulators	– Fruit Set: 100 ppm GA or 20 ppm PCPA – Berry Size: 40 ppm GA – Cluster Size: GA, TIBA, PCPA – Maturity: Benzothiazole A-Oxyacetic Acid (BOA)
Harvesting	– Criteria: Uniform size/shape/color, soft and sweet lower berries, translucent appearance, dark brown seeds, specific Brix levels – Harvest with scissors, pack carefully to avoid damage
Yield	– Bangalore Blue/Patcha Draksha: 5000 kg/ha – Bhokri: 4500–9000 kg/ha – Anab-e-Shahi: 10000–15000 kg/ha Bangalore Blue: 30000 kg/ha
Longevity	– Grapevines can yield up to a century with proper care, commercial replacement after ~30 years

Guava Cultivation Overview

Category	Details
Botanical Name	Psidium guajava, Linn
Family	Myrtaceae
Origin	Tropical America (Mexico to Peru)
Significance	Fourth most important fruit in India by area and production after mango, banana, and citrus.
Nutritional Value	– Rich in Vitamin C (2-5 times higher than oranges) – Fair source of Vitamin A and B2 – Contains calcium, phosphorus, and iron
Uses	– Fresh fruit consumption – Jam, jellies, and culinary uses – Canning in sugar syrup – Leaves used for dye, tannin, and medicinal purposes (e.g., curing diarrhea)
Climate	– Tropical and subtropical conditions – Optimal Temperature: 23-28°C – Annual Rainfall: <100 cm (preferably June-September) – Not suitable for areas with >250 cm rainfall – High humidity and heavy rains reduce fruit quality – Dry climate needed during flowering and fruiting
Soil	– Well-drained, light sandy loam to clay soils – Tolerates pH: 4.5 to 8.5 – Sensitive to waterlogged conditions – Varieties like Lucknow-49 can tolerate saline soils
Varieties	Seeded Varieties: – Allahabad Safeda – Lucknow-49 – Arka Mridula – Red Fleshed – Allahabad Surkha Seedless Varieties: – Nagapur Seedless – Saharanpur Seedless Hybrids: – Saefd Jam (Allahabad Safeda x Kohir) – Kohir Safeda (Kohir x Allahabad Safeda) – Nasik, Dharwar, Apple Colour, Banarasi, Hafsi, Anakapalli, Harijha, Chitdar
Propagation	Seed Propagation: – Common but not advisable due to variability Vegetative Methods: – Air Layering/Ground Layering (rainy season) – Pot Layering (Telangana) – Budding (Shield/Patch, May-June) – Inarching (July-August) – Cuttings (only with mist and rooting hormones) – Root Suckers (limited availability) Commercial Methods: Air Layering, Pot Layering, Inarching
Planting	– Deep ploughing and leveling – Pits: 75-100 cm³ – Mix: Tank silt, FYM/Compost, soil – Planting Time: June-December (South India), June-August (North India) – Spacing: 5-6 meters (square system), increased to 6-8 meters in fertile soils
Flowering & Fruiting	– Flowering: Solitary or cymes of 2-3 flowers – Blooming Period: 25-45 days – Initial fruit set: 80%, but fruit drop leads to 34-56% maturity Flowering Periods: – Ambe-bahar: February-March (Fruits ripe July-September, lower quality) – Mrig-bahar: June-July (Fruits ripe November-January, high quality) – Hasth-bahar: October (Fruits ripe February-April, low yield but high price)
Crop Regulation (Bahar Treatment)	– Restrict irrigation from February to mid-May – Expose roots (remove soil around trunk, then cover) – De-blossoming (NAD at 50 ppm or manually)
Irrigation	– Young plants: Weekly in summer, 2-3 times in winter – Bearing trees: Required for flowering and fruit setting – Maintain soil moisture to prevent fruit drop – Avoid excessive watering during non-flowering periods
Manures & Fertilizers	One Year After Planting: – Compost: 20 kg – Ammonium Sulphate: 1 kg – Super Phosphate: 1 kg – Muriate of Potash: 1 kg Every Year: – Compost: 20 kg – Ammonium Sulphate: 0.5 kg – Super Phosphate: 0.25 kg – Muriate of Potash: 0.25 kg Bearing Trees: – Compost: 100 kg – Ammonium Sulphate: 3 kg – Super Phosphate: 2 kg – Muriate of Potash: 2 kg Zinc Deficiency: – Spray: 450g zinc sulphate + 300g slaked lime in 73 liters water (June-July, September-October)
Interculture	– Ploughing: Twice or thrice (beginning, middle, end of monsoon) – Keep basins weed-free – Expand basins as trees grow
Intercropping	– Suitable crops during early stages: Bhendi, brinjal, beetroot, papaya – Not recommended for fully grown orchards
Training & Pruning	– Train to open centre system – Avoid criss-crossing branches – Light annual pruning to encourage new shoots – For seedling trees, bend branches horizontally for better fruiting – Pollarding/Dehorning for aged trees – Bending of upright branches for better fruit production
Harvesting	– Seedling Trees: 4-5 years to bear – Vegetatively Propagated Plants: Start bearing from 3rd year – Harvest when fruits are greenish yellow – Mature fruits are preferred; avoid over-ripening on trees – Hand-picking recommended
Yield	– Seedling Trees: 400-500 fruits (10 years old)- Grafted Trees: 1000-2000 fruits- Good Orchard: 25-30 tonnes/ha

Common Guava Pests

Pest	Description	Damage	Control Methods
Guava Fruit Fly	Bactrocera correcta	Infests fruits, causing rotting and premature drop.	– Use traps (e.g., methyl eugenol) – Use insecticides like malathion – Practice sanitation
Guava Moth	Cydia pomonella	Larvae bore into fruits, causing internal damage and rotting.	– Apply pheromone traps – Use insecticides like endosulfan – Remove and destroy infested fruits
Whitefly	Bemisia tabaci	Sucks sap from leaves, causing yellowing and stunting.	– Use insecticidal soap or neem oil – Introduce natural predators (e.g., Encarsia formosa)
Scale Insects	Various species (e.g., Aspidiotus destructor)	Sucks sap from branches and leaves, leading to leaf drop and reduced vigor.	– Apply horticultural oil or insecticidal soap – Use systemic insecticides like imidacloprid
Aphids	Aphis gossypii	Sucks sap, causing curling of leaves and sooty mold.	– Use neem oil or insecticidal soap – Introduce natural predators (e.g., ladybugs)
Mealybugs	Planococcus citri	Sucks sap and excretes honeydew, leading to sooty mold and fruit drop.	– Use insecticidal soap or neem oil – Introduce natural enemies (e.g., parasitoid wasps)
Thrips	Frankliniella schultzei	Causes scarring and deformity of fruits and flowers.	– Apply insecticides like Spinosad – Use blue sticky traps
Spider Mites	Tetranychus urticae	Causes stippling and webbing on leaves, leading to leaf drop and reduced photosynthesis.	– Use miticides or acaricides – Increase humidity or use wettable sulfur
Guava Psylla	Psylla nigrispina	Causes leaf curl and deformation; can also affect fruit development.	– Apply insecticides like acephate – Use biological control agents (e.g., parasitoids)
Root-Knot Nematodes	Meloidogyne spp.	Causes root galls and poor root development, leading to reduced growth and yield.	– Use nematicides – Practice crop rotation and soil solarization
Leaf Spot Diseases	Various pathogens (e.g., Cercospora psidii)	Causes spots and lesions on leaves, affecting photosynthesis.	– Remove and destroy affected leaves – Use fungicides like copper-based products

Control Strategies

Cultural Control: Maintain orchard hygiene, remove and destroy infested fruits and debris, and practice crop rotation.
Mechanical Control: Use traps and physical barriers.
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides or fungicides as necessary, following recommended guidelines.
Biological Control: Introduce natural predators or parasitoids to manage pest populations

Common Guava Diseases

Disease	Causing Agent	Symptoms	Control Methods
Anthracnose	Colletotrichum gloeosporioides	Dark, sunken lesions on fruits and leaves; fruits may rot and develop a pinkish mold.	– Apply fungicides (e.g., copper-based products) – Practice good orchard hygiene – Remove and destroy affected fruits
Powdery Mildew	Oidium psidii	White, powdery fungal growth on leaves, stems, and fruits; leaves may curl and drop.	– Apply fungicides (e.g., sulfur or potassium bicarbonate) – Improve air circulation – Avoid overhead irrigation
Leaf Spot	Cercospora psidii	Round, dark spots with concentric rings on leaves; can lead to leaf drop and reduced yield.	– Remove and destroy affected leaves – Apply fungicides (e.g., copper-based products) – Improve air circulation
Fruit Rot	Pestalotia psidii, Pseudocercospora psidii	Rotting of fruits, often starting from the stem end; may be accompanied by a gray mold.	– Apply fungicides (e.g., benomyl or carbendazim) – Practice proper spacing and pruning – Harvest fruits before full maturity
Bacterial Wilt	Ralstonia solanacearum	Wilting and yellowing of leaves; browning of vascular tissue; plant may eventually die.	– Use resistant varieties if available – Avoid waterlogging – Practice crop rotation – Sanitize tools and equipment
Guava Rust	Puccinia psidii	Rust-colored pustules on leaves and stems; severe cases can lead to defoliation.	– Apply fungicides (e.g., triazoles or copper-based products) – Remove and destroy infected plant material
Canker	Gloeosporium psidii	Sunken, dark lesions on stems and branches; can cause dieback.	– Apply copper-based fungicides – Prune and destroy affected branches – Improve drainage and reduce humidity
Root Rot	Phytophthora parasitica	Root decay leading to poor growth and wilting; plants may die if untreated.	– Use fungicides (e.g., metalaxyl) – Improve soil drainage – Avoid waterlogging – Practice soil solarization
Crown Rot	Pythium spp.	Decay of the crown area at the soil line; plant may wilt and die.	– Improve soil drainage – Avoid excessive watering – Apply fungicides (e.g., mefenoxam)
Sooty Mold	Various fungi	Black, sooty fungal growth on leaves, stems, and fruits; often associated with honeydew excreted by insects.	– Control pest populations (e.g., aphids, whiteflies) – Wash off sooty mold with water or mild soap solution
Guava Yellowing Disease	Phytoplasma	Yellowing of leaves, stunted growth, and reduced fruiting.	– Use phytoplasma-free planting material – Practice good orchard sanitation – Remove and destroy infected plants

Control Strategies

Cultural Control: Maintain good orchard hygiene, avoid waterlogging, use resistant varieties, and practice proper spacing and pruning.
Chemical Control: Apply appropriate fungicides and bactericides as needed, following recommended guidelines.
Biological Control: Use beneficial organisms or biopesticides where applicable to manage disease.
Physical Control: Remove and destroy infected plant material, and ensure proper irrigation and drainage practices.

Guava Yield Data

Category	Details
Seedling Guava Trees	– Age (Years): 10 years – Yield (Fruits/Tree): 400-500 fruits – Yield (Tons/Ha): Varies depending on tree density and spacing; typically 10-15 tons per hectare
Grafted Guava Trees	– Age (Years): 4-5 years – Yield (Fruits/Tree): 1000-2000 fruits – Yield (Tons/Ha): Approximately 20-25 tons per hectare
Good Orchard Management	– Age (Years): 6-10 years – Yield (Fruits/Tree): 1500-2500 fruits – Yield (Tons/Ha): 25-30 tons per hectare
High-Performance Varieties	– Age (Years): 3-5 years (varies by variety) – Yield (Fruits/Tree): 2000+ fruits – Yield (Tons/Ha): 30-35 tons per hectare

Additional Notes

Density of Planting: Guava tree spacing can affect yield. Common spacing is 5-6 meters between trees in a square planting system, which can influence the total yield per hectare.
Fruit Size and Quality: Yield figures can vary depending on fruit size and quality requirements. High-density planting can result in a higher yield per hectare but may affect fruit size and quality.
Environmental Factors: Factors such as rainfall, temperature, soil type, and pest and disease management play a crucial role in determining the final yield.
Cultural Practices: Proper irrigation, fertilization, pruning, and disease control significantly impact the productivity of guava orchards.

common pests that affect sapota (Achras zapota) along with their effects and management strategies:

Pest	Description	Damage	Management
Fruit Fly	Various species (e.g., Bactrocera dorsalis)	Infestation of fruit leading to premature rotting.	Use fruit fly traps, apply insecticides, and maintain good orchard hygiene.
Mealybug	Planococcus spp.	Sucks sap from leaves and fruits, causing weakening and stunted growth.	Use insecticidal soaps or neem oil, and introduce natural predators like ladybugs.
Scale Insects	Aonidiella spp., Coccus spp.	Causes yellowing and dropping of leaves; reduces fruit quality.	Apply horticultural oils or systemic insecticides; use natural predators.
Aphids	Various species	Suck sap from plants, leading to stunted growth and honeydew secretion, which attracts sooty mold.	Use insecticidal soap, neem oil, or introduce aphid predators like ladybugs.
Spider Mites	Tetranychus spp.	Causes leaf stippling and yellowing, leading to reduced photosynthesis.	Apply miticides or use predatory mites to control their population.
Caterpillars	Various species (e.g., Spodoptera litura)	Chew on leaves, fruits, and flowers, causing significant damage.	Handpick caterpillars, use biological control agents like parasitic wasps, or apply appropriate insecticides.
Ants	Various species	Protect and farm aphids and scale insects; can also damage young plants.	Use ant baits, and control the aphid and scale populations to reduce ant attraction.
Whiteflies	Various species	Suck sap from leaves, leading to weakened plants and sooty mold.	Use insecticidal soap, yellow sticky traps, or introduce whitefly predators like lacewings.
Thrips	Various species	Causes silvering and distortion of leaves and fruit drop.	Use insecticidal soap or neem oil, and introduce natural enemies such as predatory mites.
Leaf Miners	Various species	Create tunnels inside leaves, causing leaf drop and reduced photosynthesis.	Remove affected leaves, use systemic insecticides, or introduce parasitoids.

General Pest Management Tips:

Regular Monitoring: Regularly inspect plants for signs of pest infestation.
Sanitation: Keep the orchard clean by removing fallen fruit and debris.
Cultural Practices: Implement good cultural practices like proper spacing and irrigation to reduce pest pressure.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Use a combination of biological, mechanical, and chemical control methods to manage pests effectively while minimizing harm to beneficial organisms.

papaya pests and their control measures:

Pest	Description	Control Measures
Papaya Mealybug	Small, white, waxy insects that infest the plant, leading to sticky honeydew and sooty mold.	– Use of natural predators like Cryptolaemus montrouzieri.- Apply insecticidal soaps or neem oil.- Remove infested parts and maintain cleanliness.
Aphids	Small, soft-bodied insects that can transmit viruses and cause distortion.	– Encourage natural enemies like ladybugs.- Use insecticidal soaps or neem oil.- Regularly inspect plants and remove aphids manually if necessary.
Whiteflies	Tiny, white flying insects that suck sap and can transmit plant diseases.	– Use yellow sticky traps to catch adults.- Introduce natural predators such as Encarsia formosa.- Apply insecticidal soaps or neem oil.
Spider Mites	Tiny pests that cause stippling on leaves and may lead to leaf drop.	– Increase humidity around plants.- Use miticides or neem oil.- Introduce predatory mites like Phytoseiulus persimilis.
Fruit Flies	Small flies that lay eggs in fruit, leading to larvae feeding on the fruit.	– Use fruit fly traps with pheromone lures.- Bagging fruits or using fine mesh nets.- Remove and destroy infested fruits.
Caterpillars	Larvae of moths or butterflies that feed on leaves and fruits.	– Handpick and remove caterpillars.- Use Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for biological control.- Apply insecticides if necessary.
Nematodes	Microscopic worms that attack roots, leading to stunted growth and poor yield.	– Use nematode-resistant varieties.- Apply nematicides or soil solarization.- Maintain proper soil drainage.
Scale Insects	Small, immobile insects that attach to stems and leaves, causing reduced vigor.	– Use horticultural oils or insecticidal soaps.- Introduce natural predators like Encarsia pergandiella.- Remove and dispose of heavily infested plant parts.
Root Rot (due to pests)	Damage to roots from pests leading to poor growth and fruiting.	– Ensure well-drained soil.- Use appropriate fungicides if needed.- Practice crop rotation and avoid waterlogging.
Papaya Wilter	Caused by pests that damage the plant’s vascular system, leading to wilting.	– Use systemic insecticides.- Ensure proper watering and soil management.- Avoid plant stress conditions.
Thrips	Tiny insects that cause silvering and distortion of leaves.	– Use blue sticky traps.- Apply insecticidal soaps or neem oil.- Introduce natural predators like Orius spp..

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Tips:

Regular Monitoring: Regularly inspect plants for signs of pests and disease.
Cultural Practices: Maintain good hygiene, remove and destroy infested plant parts, and ensure proper spacing and drainage.
Biological Controls: Utilize natural predators and parasitoids to manage pest populations.
Chemical Controls: Use pesticides as a last resort and follow recommended application rates to minimize harm to beneficial insects.

common papaya diseases and their management strategies:

Disease	Description	Management Strategies
Papaya Ringspot Virus (PRSV)	Viral disease causing ringspot symptoms on leaves, distorted fruit, and reduced yield.	– Resistant Varieties: Use resistant cultivars.- Vector Control: Control aphid populations.- Isolation: Remove and destroy infected plants.- Sanitation: Clean tools and equipment.
Papaya Leaf Curl	Virus transmitted by whiteflies, causing curling, distortion, and yellowing of leaves.	– Control Whiteflies: Use whitefly control measures.- Remove Infected Plants: Remove and destroy affected plants.- Use Resistant Varieties: Select varieties less susceptible to the virus.
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.)	Fungal disease causing dark, sunken lesions on fruits and leaves.	– Fungicide Application: Apply appropriate fungicides like chlorothalonil.- Improve Air Circulation: Avoid overcrowding.- Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plant debris.- Water Management: Avoid overhead irrigation.
Powdery Mildew (Oidium spp.)	Fungal disease causing white, powdery patches on leaves and stems.	– Fungicide Application: Use sulfur-based or other effective fungicides.- Proper Spacing: Ensure adequate spacing for good air circulation.- Remove Infected Parts: Prune and destroy affected parts.
Downy Mildew (Peronospora spp.)	Fungal disease leading to yellow spots on leaves and grayish mold on the underside.	– Fungicide Application: Apply fungicides such as metalaxyl.- Improve Drainage: Ensure proper drainage to reduce humidity.- Sanitation: Remove infected plant material.- Resistant Varieties: Use resistant cultivars.
Foot Rot (Phytophthora palmivora)	Fungal disease causing rot at the base of the plant, leading to wilt and death.	– Improve Drainage: Avoid waterlogging and ensure proper soil drainage.- Fungicide Application: Use systemic fungicides.- Soil Treatment: Treat soil with recommended fungicides.- Planting Practices: Avoid planting in low-lying areas prone to water accumulation.
Bacterial Blight (Xanthomonas papayae)	Bacterial disease causing water-soaked lesions on leaves, fruit, and stems.	– Antibiotic Application: Apply copper-based bactericides.- Remove Infected Plants: Destroy infected plants.- Avoid Overhead Irrigation: Minimize wetting of foliage.- Sanitation: Clean tools and equipment.
Leaf Spot (Cercospora spp.)	Fungal disease causing dark, circular spots with yellow halos on leaves.	– Fungicide Application: Apply fungicides like mancozeb.- Remove Affected Leaves: Prune and destroy infected leaves.- Maintain Good Air Circulation: Avoid dense plantings.- Proper Irrigation: Avoid excessive moisture.
Wilt Diseases	Includes various diseases causing wilting and root rot, often caused by soil-borne pathogens.	– Improve Soil Drainage: Ensure well-drained soil.- Soil Solarization: Use soil solarization to kill pathogens.- Crop Rotation: Rotate with non-susceptible crops.- Resistant Varieties: Use resistant varieties if available.
Root Rot (Pythium spp.)	Fungal disease affecting roots, causing poor growth and wilting.	– Improve Drainage: Avoid waterlogging.- Fungicide Application: Apply soil fungicides.- Soil Treatment: Use recommended treatments to manage soil-borne pathogens.- Proper Planting Depth: Avoid planting too deep.
Black Rot (Alternaria papayae)	Fungal disease causing black lesions on fruits, which may expand and cause fruit decay.	– Fungicide Application: Use fungicides such as mancozeb.- Prune Infected Fruits: Remove and destroy affected fruits.- Improve Airflow: Ensure good air circulation around plants.- Sanitation: Clear fallen and infected fruit debris.

Integrated Disease Management (IDM) Tips:

Regular Monitoring: Inspect plants regularly for signs of disease.
Cultural Practices: Maintain good soil health, avoid overcrowding, and ensure proper irrigation and drainage.
Biological Controls: Utilize beneficial organisms and natural predators when applicable.
Chemical Controls: Use fungicides and bactericides as necessary, following recommended guidelines to avoid resistance development.
Sanitation: Regularly clean tools, remove infected plant material, and practice proper disposal methods.

pomegranate cultivation information:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Name	Punica granatum
Family	Punicaceae
Origin	Iran (Persia)
Introduction to India	From Persia or Afghanistan.
Uses	– Table fruit- Juice- Medicinal properties- Dye for wool, silk, and clothes- Tannin for leather tanning
Nutritional Content	– Sugars: 14-16%- Minerals: 0.7-1.0%- Iron: 0.3-0.7 mg/100 g
Cultivating Areas in India	Ananthapur, Rangareddy, Medhak, Mahaboobnagar, Adilabad
Climate	– Subtropical- Thrives in hot, dry climates- Can grow up to 1800m above sea level- Requires cool winters and hot, dry summers- Sensitive to humidity
Soil Requirements	– Ideal: Deep loamy or alluvial soils- Tolerant of slightly alkaline soils- Can grow in poor soils
Propagation Methods	– Stem Cuttings: 20-25 cm long, treated with IAA or IBA- Air Layering: Using Indole Butyric Acid- Root Suckers: Careful extraction and planting
Varieties	– Bhagwa- Bedhana- Jodpur- Red Dholka- Ganesh- Alandhi- Musket Red- Jalore Seedless- Jyothi- Papershell- Mridula- Ruby
Hybrids	– Mridula: Developed from Ganesh X Gul-e-sha Red- Ruby: Hybrid of Ganesh, Kabul, Yercaud, Gul-e-sha Rose Pink
Land Preparation	– Well-leveled land- Pits: 60-75 cm³- Fill with FYM, super phosphate, phorate granules- Planting distance: 5x4m (adjustable)
Irrigation	– Regular for new plants- Established plants: 2-4 weeks intervals- Essential from flowering to fruit ripening
Manures and Fertilizers	– FYM: 10 kg (1-year-old plant), increasing to 50 kg (5-year-old)- Ammonium Sulphate: 150-200 g (1-year-old), 1 kg (5-year-old)- Additional nutrients as needed
Training	– Single-stemmed Tree: Remove side shoots, head back main stem- Multi-stemmed Tree: Retain 3-4 stems
Pruning	– Remove ground suckers, water shoots, criss-cross branches- Limited pruning of exhausted spurs
Flowering and Fruiting	– Ambe Bahar: Feb-Mar- Mrig Bahar: Jun-Jul- Hasta Bahar: Sep-Oct
Bahar Treatment	– Ambe-Bahar: Withhold water post-monsoon- Mrig-Bahar: Suppress growth during Dec-April- Hastha-Bahar: Uncertain due to rains
Harvesting	– 5-7 months from flowering- Harvest in morning/evening- Use clippers, avoid twisting- Cure in shade
Maturity Indices	– Change in fruit color- Soft fruit- Flattened ridges- Dry floral parts- Metallic or cracking sound when tapped- Acidity < 1.85%
Physiological Disorders	– Fruit Cracking: Due to moisture fluctuations, high temperatures- Control Measures: Regular irrigation, tolerant varieties, Borax, GA3, windbreaks

pomegranate cultivation:

Pest	Description	Control Measures
Fruit Fly	Causes softening and rotting of fruit.	– Use bait traps or attractants.- Apply insecticides like malathion.- Remove and destroy infested fruits.- Maintain good orchard sanitation.
Pomegranate Butterfly (Deudorix epijarbas)	Larvae feed on flowers and fruits.	– Use pheromone traps.- Apply insecticides such as carbaryl or pyrethroids.- Regularly inspect and remove larvae manually.
Aphids	Suck sap from plants, causing stunted growth.	– Introduce natural predators like ladybugs or lacewings.- Use insecticidal soap or neem oil.- Regularly inspect and wash off aphids with water.
Mealybugs	Suck sap and produce honeydew, leading to sooty mold.	– Use systemic insecticides like imidacloprid.- Apply insecticidal soap or neem oil.- Remove and destroy heavily infested branches.
Scale Insects	Cause yellowing and dropping of leaves.	– Use horticultural oils or insecticidal soap.- Scrape off scales manually.- Introduce natural enemies like parasitic wasps.
Spider Mites	Cause leaf stippling and reduced photosynthesis.	– Use miticides like abamectin or sulfur.- Increase humidity around plants to reduce mite populations.- Regularly wash plants to remove mites.
Whiteflies	Suck sap and cause honeydew secretion.	– Use yellow sticky traps.- Apply insecticides like neonicotinoids or insecticidal soap.- Encourage natural predators like Encarsia formosa.
Leafhoppers	Cause leaf curling and reduce fruit quality.	– Use insecticidal soap or neem oil.- Apply systemic insecticides.- Control nearby weed hosts.
Cutworms	Feed on seedlings and young plants.	– Use soil insecticides.- Apply barriers like collars around seedlings.- Hand-pick and destroy cutworms.
Borers (e.g., Pomegranate Stem Borer)	Bore into stems and branches, causing dieback.	– Use systemic insecticides.- Remove and destroy affected branches.- Apply preventive sprays to protect against infestation.

General Pest Management Tips

Regular Monitoring: Inspect plants frequently to catch infestations early.
Cultural Practices: Maintain good orchard hygiene, such as removing fallen leaves and fruit.
Biological Control: Introduce or encourage natural predators and parasitoids.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Combine mechanical, biological, and chemical control methods for a more effective approach.
Resistant Varieties: Consider planting pomegranate varieties with natural resistance to common pests.

Disease	Description	Control Measures
Anthracnose	Causes fruit rot and black lesions on fruit.	– Remove and destroy infected fruits.- Apply fungicides like carbendazim or copper-based products.- Ensure proper spacing for good air circulation.
Powdery Mildew	White powdery growth on leaves and fruits.	– Apply fungicides such as sulfur or potassium bicarbonate.- Improve air circulation by proper pruning.- Avoid overhead watering to reduce humidity.
Root Rot (Phytophthora)	Causes wilting and root decay.	– Improve drainage and avoid waterlogging.- Apply fungicides like metalaxyl or fosetyl-Al.- Use resistant rootstocks and avoid planting in poorly drained soils.
Bacterial Blight	Causes dark spots on leaves and stems.	– Apply copper-based bactericides.- Remove and destroy affected plant parts.- Maintain good orchard sanitation and avoid overhead watering.
Leaf Spot	Dark, sunken spots on leaves and fruits.	– Apply fungicides like mancozeb or chlorothalonil.- Remove and destroy infected leaves.- Ensure proper spacing and airflow around plants.
Fruit Cracking	Cracking of fruit due to irregular moisture.	– Maintain consistent soil moisture with regular irrigation.- Apply boron and GA3 (Gibberellic Acid) to reduce cracking.- Use tolerant or resistant varieties.
Alternaria Blight	Causes dark, sunken lesions on leaves and fruit.	– Apply fungicides such as mancozeb or copper oxychloride.- Remove infected plant parts.- Avoid overhead watering and ensure good drainage.
Wilt Diseases	Causes wilting and plant collapse.	– Apply systemic fungicides or bactericides.- Remove and destroy infected plants.- Improve soil drainage and avoid planting in poorly drained areas.
Pomegranate Malformation	Causes abnormal growth and malformation.	– Use virus-free planting material.- Apply appropriate fungicides if secondary infections are present.- Regularly inspect and manage plant health.

General Disease Management Tips

Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plant material to reduce disease spread.
Proper Spacing: Ensure adequate spacing between plants to improve air circulation and reduce humidity.
Crop Rotation: Rotate crops to prevent disease buildup in the soil.
Water Management: Avoid overhead watering to reduce humidity and fungal growth.
Regular Monitoring: Inspect plants frequently for early signs of disease.
Resistant Varieties: Use disease-resistant varieties when available.
Fungicides and Bactericides: Use recommended products and follow application guidelines.

Custard apple (Annona squamosa):

Aspect	Details
Botanical Name	Annona squamosa
Family	Annonaceae
Origin	Tropical America
Cultivation in India	Grown in tropical and subtropical regions; major cultivation in Andhra Pradesh (Mahaboobnagar, Balanagar, East Godavari).
Nutritional Value	Rich in carbohydrates, protein, fiber, calcium, phosphorus, iron, and Vitamin C. Good energy source.
Uses	Consumed as table fruit, preserved as jam/jelly, used in ice creams, and baked. Medicinal uses include oil from seeds for soaps, manure, and insecticidal properties from various plant parts.
Climate	Prefers warm, subtropical climate with moderate winter and humidity. Tolerates elevation up to 1000 meters. Requires 50-75 cm annual rainfall. Sensitive to prolonged cool weather and frost.
Soil Requirements	Grows in sandy, rocky, gravely, or heavy soils. Requires good drainage; avoids waterlogging and high water table. Tolerates salinity but not alkalinity.
Varieties	Includes Lalsithapal, Mammoth, Balanagar, British Guinea, Pinks Mammoth, Island gem, Washington, Arka Sahan, Atemoya.
Propagation Methods	Sexual (seed) and asexual (clonal) propagation. Clonal propagation includes cuttings, budding, and grafting.- Cuttings: High success with NAA treatment.- Budding: Shield budding most successful.- Grafting: Veneer grafting commonly used.
Planting	Suitable for 6 months to 1 year old seedlings/grafts. Pits of 45-60 cm³ (deep soils) or 75-90 cm³ (poor soils) with soil, farmyard manure, and fertilizers. Planting distance 4-7 meters. Best planted at the beginning of the rainy season.
Training and Pruning	Train with wooden sticks; single stem up to 1m. Light pruning for better branching. Prune in early spring after dormancy.
Manuring and Fertilization	Apply FYM, castor cake, bone meal, and chemical fertilizers (urea, super phosphate, muriate of potash) in June-July and August-September.
Irrigation	Generally drought-tolerant. Irrigate before and after monsoon. Avoid water stagnation.
Intercultural Operations	Control weeds, harrow in August-September, manual defoliation during mild summer to promote new growth.
Intercropping	Legumes like groundnut and black gram can be grown as intercrops up to full canopy development.
Flowering and Fruiting	Begins flowering in 4 years; flowering from March-July, peak in April-May. Fruit set affected by temperature, humidity, and dichogamy. Artificial pollination can improve fruit set.
Harvesting	Harvest when segments are conspicuous, and color changes to light yellow or green. Fruits ripen within a week after harvest.
Yield	Seedling plants fruit in 4-5 years; grafted/budded plants in 3-4 years. Average yield is 100-150 fruits/tree, with a total of 8-10 tons/hectare.
Disorders	Stone Fruits: Brown, hard fruits that remain on the tree after the harvest period; caused by physiological disorder or malnutrition. Improve with proper nutrition and timely cultivation.

Pest control tips for custard apple (Annona squamosa):

Pest	Control Measures
Fruit Flies	– Traps: Use baited traps with fruit or pheromone attractants to capture adult flies.- Insecticides: Apply appropriate insecticides as per guidelines.- Sanitation: Remove and destroy infested fruits.
Mealybugs	– Manual Removal: Remove mealybugs by hand or with a brush.- Insecticidal Soap: Apply insecticidal soap or neem oil.- Natural Predators: Introduce natural predators like ladybugs.
Scale Insects	– Manual Scraping: Scrape off scales manually from the plant.- Insecticidal Soap: Apply insecticidal soap or neem oil.- Horticultural Oil: Use horticultural oil to smother pests.
Aphids	– Water Spray: Use a strong jet of water to dislodge aphids.- Insecticidal Soap: Apply insecticidal soap or neem oil.- Natural Predators: Encourage ladybugs and lacewings.
Spider Mites	– Water Spray: Spray plants with water to reduce mite populations.- Miticides: Use specific miticides if necessary.- Insecticidal Soap: Apply insecticidal soap.
Caterpillars	– Hand Picking: Remove caterpillars by hand.- Bacillus thuringiensis: Use Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for targeted control.- Insecticidal Soap: Apply insecticidal soap.
Ants	– Baiting: Use ant baits containing insecticides to control ant populations.- Barrier Methods: Apply sticky barriers around the base of plants to prevent ants from climbing.
Whiteflies	– Yellow Traps: Use yellow sticky traps to capture whiteflies.- Insecticidal Soap: Apply insecticidal soap or neem oil.- Natural Predators: Introduce predators like Encarsia formosa.
Thrips	– Sticky Traps: Use blue or yellow sticky traps.- Insecticidal Soap: Apply insecticidal soap or neem oil.- Predatory Mites: Introduce predatory mites like Amblyseius.

Pineapple cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Name	Ananas comosus / Ananas sativus
Family	Bromeliaceae
Origin	Brazil
Climate	Tropical, optimal temperature 21-23°C, up to 1100m above sea level, requires 150cm rainfall.
Soil	Sandy loams, laterites, slightly acidic (pH 5.5-6.00), at least 60cm depth, avoid heavy clay.
Varieties	– Cayenne: Dual-purpose (fresh & canning).- Queen: Fresh fruit only.- Spanish: Dual-purpose.- India Cultivars: Giant Kew, Kew, Queen, Mauritius, Jaldhup, Lakhat, Charlotte Rothschild.
Propagation	– Suckers: Shoots below fruit, earlier flowering.- Slips: Shoots from fruiting stem, later flowering.- Crowns: Used for Kew variety, late fruiting.- Stumps/Discs: Rarely used.
Land Preparation	Thorough ploughing, FYM/compost, level land, create trenches/mounds.
Planting	Best in July-August or year-round with irrigation. Suckers should be dried and treated before planting.
Interculture	Weeding, mulching with dry materials to conserve moisture.
Manuring	– FYM: 20-25 tonnes/ha.- Nitrogen: 350kg/ha (split doses).- P2O5: 130kg/ha.- K2O: 40kg/ha.
Irrigation	Essential during dry periods; 4-5 irrigations at 15-20 day intervals.
Flowering Regulation	Use NAA (Planofix) or Ethephon + urea + sodium carbonate for uniform flowering.
Cropping	Flowers 12 months after planting (Feb-Apr), fruits mature in 135-165 days (June-Sept).
Harvesting	Harvest when 2-3 rows of eyes at the base turn yellow. Use a sharp knife to cut the fruit stalk.
Yield	40-60 tonnes/ha depending on variety.
Ratoon Cropping	Post-harvest, remove excess suckers and slips; fertilize, irrigate, and earth up for ratoon crop. Retain for 4-5 years.

ber (jujube) cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Name	– Indian Ber: Zizyphus mauritiana – Chinese Ber: Zizyphus jujuba
Family	Rhamnaceae
Origin	Indo-China region
Climate	Hot and dry climate preferred; can withstand extreme heat but is susceptible to frost. Drought hardy.
Soil	Adaptable to various soil types (shallow to deep, gravelly to clayey). Best in deep sandy loam, neutral to slightly alkaline. Can withstand alkalinity and slight waterlogging.
Varieties	– Popular: Umran, Kaithli, Banarasi Karaka, Gola, Seb Dandan, Meharun. – Other: Sanur-2, Meharun, Dandan.
Propagation	Mainly by budding (shield budding on suitable rootstock).
Rootstock	– Preferred: Zizyphus rotundifolia (higher fruit yield). – Other: Zizyphus nummularia (slower growing).
Planting	– Best Time: February-March or August-September. – Preparation: 1m³ pits with FYM, super phosphate, and carbaryl.
Spacing	7.5m apart in a square system (180 trees/ha).
Training	Train from nursery stage. Develop a strong framework by retaining one upright shoot and removing others. Regular training and pruning needed.
Pruning	Essential for inducing healthy new shoots. Prune 1/4 of previous season’s growth. Best done end of May/early June.
Manuring	– 1 year: 10 kg FYM, 125g N, 40g P, 75g K. – 2 years: 15 kg FYM, 250g N, 80g P, 150g K. – 3 years: 20 kg FYM, 250g N, 120g P, 225g K. – 4 years+: 25 kg FYM, 500g N, 160g P, 300g K.
Irrigation	Essential during fruit development (September-December), given at 7-10 day intervals.
Interculture	Weeding, hoeing, and soil stirring around tree canopy. One ploughing in September-October is beneficial.
Intercropping	Leguminous crops are preferable until ber trees fill the interspaces.
Flowering & Fruiting	Flowering from June-August; fruit set starts in October. GA and 2,4-D can improve fruit set and reduce drop.
Harvesting	Fruits mature in about 120 days, starting from November to January. Requires 4-5 pickings. Ethephon at color turning stage can induce early ripening.
Yield	100-200 kg per tree, depending on variety.

fig (Anjur) cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Name	Ficus carica
Family	Moraceae
Origin	Southern Arabia
Description	Deciduous small to medium tree with a short, twisted trunk. Edible fruit is a multiple fruit Syconium with fleshy hollow receptacle. Fruit consists of tiny drupelets inside a cavity.
Nutritional Value	High in sugar (26%), low in acidity. Rich in calcium, iron, vitamins A and C. Dried figs contain 50-65% sugar. Stimulates blood production and helps prevent anemia.
Growing Centres	Poona, Bangalore, Srirangapatnam, Bellary, Ananthapur, Lucknow. Commercial cultivation centered around Poona.
Climate	Prefers subtropical conditions. Tolerates low temperatures (-12°C). Thrives in arid and semi-arid regions. Requires high temperature, low humidity, and absence of rain during fruit development and ripening. Can be grown up to 1500m elevation.
Soil	Best in deep, non-alkaline clay loams or alluvial clay loams. Sensitive to sodium carbonate and boron salts. High lime content improves quality.
Varieties	– Capri Fig: Stanford, Crosic, Samson, Roeding (produces three crops). – Adriatic Fig: Black Ischia, Turkish White, Marseilles, Kadota, Mission, Adriatic, Brown Turkey, Celeste, Conardia (parthenocarpic or pollinated). – Smyrna Fig: Zide, Taranimt, Calimyrna (requires pollination). – White San Pedro: San Pedro, Dauphine, Gentile, Blanguette, King, Lampeira (combines Smyrna and Adriatic traits).
Propagation	Commercially by hardwood cuttings from matured terminal branches. Also propagated by air layering, ring budding, and side grafting.
Planting	Plant in 60cm cube pits in a square system at 6m spacing from June to October. Spacing can vary from 3x3m to 8x8m, with 6x6m being appropriate.
Training and Pruning	Train young plants to single or multi-stem. Head back plants every January-February to about two buds per shoot. Notching can stimulate lateral growth.
Intercropping	Utilize interspace with green manuring and vegetable crops during the rainy season until fig trees come into full bearing (2-3 years).
Manures and Fertilizers	– 1 year: 10 kg FYM, 170g Ammonium Sulphate. – Progressively Increase: Up to 5 years, increase FYM and Ammonium Sulphate amounts. – Apply before growth starts in spring or in November in N.India, with care to avoid root exposure.
Irrigation	Fairly drought tolerant but benefits from irrigation twice a month during fruit development and ripening. Excessive irrigation can cause fruit cracking.
Fruiting	Bears two crops: spring crop (breba) on previous year’s shoots and main crop on current season’s growth. In N.India, the spring crop is considered main; in Central/South India, the later crop is sweeter and more valuable.
Harvesting	Begins at 3 years, commercial bearing starts from 5 years. Harvest when mature (light green, soft to touch). Fruits can also be collected after falling and drying.
Yield	300-500 fruits per tree per year, or up to 12 tons/ha in well-managed orchards. Fruits are harvested by twisting the neck at the stem end.

Phalsa cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Names	1. Bush Phalsa: Grewia subinaequalis 2. Tree Phalsa: Grewia asiatica
Family	Tiliaceae
Origin	India
Description	Subtropical fruit, hardy and suited for arid and semi-arid regions. Fruits are astringent, cooling, and stomachic. Contains seeds, making them less favored as table fruit.
Nutritional Value	Good source of Vitamin A and C, phosphorous, and iron. Fruits have a cooling effect and are used for juice, squash, and syrup. Contains 55-65% juice.
Growing Centres	Large scale cultivation in U.P, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh. Limited in Maharashtra, Gujarat, A.P., Bihar, West Bengal, and South India along the Western Ghats.
Climate	Prefers distinct winter and summer. Tolerates freezing temperatures short-term, up to 45°C. High temperatures favor fruit ripening. Requires clear weather during flowering; rains can adversely affect fruit setting.
Soils	Grows well on a variety of soils, prefers well-drained loamy soils. Sensitive to water logging and calcareous soils (iron chlorosis). Ideal soil is rich loamy.
Varieties	No improved varieties. Local selections include local and sharbathi. Two types recognized: Tall and Dwarf (commonly grown and productive).
Propagation	Primarily through seeds. Can also be propagated by cuttings (hardwood) and layers using growth regulators (IBA 2500ppm – 30,000ppm). Air layering and simple layering are common methods.
Planting	Prepare land and dig 50x50x50 cm pits. Fill with top soil and well-rotted FYM (1:1). Add 30g BHC 10% dust to prevent white ants. Transplant 8-12 months old seedlings during January-February or with a ball of earth in August-September. Plant spacing: 2.5-3.0m apart and 3.0-4.0m between rows; 2x2m for close planting (2500 plants/ha).
Manures and Fertilizers	Hardy crop needing minimal fertilization. Apply 10-15 kg of well-rotted FYM after planting. Use nitrogenous fertilizers (1 kg CAN or Ammonium Sulphate per bush) at flowering and after fruit setting. For higher yield, apply 100 kg N, 40 kg P₂O₅, and 25 kg K₂O per hectare. Zinc and iron are beneficial; spray Zinc sulphate (0.5%) and Ferrous sulphate (0.4%) at pre-bloom and post-bloom stages.
Irrigation	Drought tolerant but requires irrigation for higher yield and quality. First irrigation in February after fertilization. Subsequent irrigation during summer (March-April) every 2-3 weeks is desirable.
Interculture and Intercropping	Ploughing after pruning to control weeds and incorporate FYM or compost. Grow green manure crops (green gram, cowpea, black gram) during rainy season in the first or second year. Turn green manure into soil by end of rainy season.
Flowering and Fruiting	Flowering starts February-March and continues till May. Flowers are cross-pollinated, with honeybees playing a major role.
Training and Pruning	Fruits borne in clusters on new shoots. Annual pruning is essential for vigorous new shoots and heavy fruiting. Allow the plant to develop as a bush. Pruning height should be 50-100 cm from ground level. Best done in December-January before new growth.
Harvesting	Begins in the second year, with commercial cropping by the third year. Harvesting in Punjab and Haryana starts end of May to June; in South India, March-April. Harvest when fruits turn deep reddish-brown and taste sweet. Pick individually and collect in cushioned baskets. Pre-harvest application of Ethephon or Ethrel (500ppm) reduces pickings from 7 to 3 and improves fruit quality.
Yield	Mature plant yields 2-4 kg of fruit on average.

Jack fruit Cultivation

Aspect	Details
Botanical Name	Artocarpus heterophyllus
Family	Moraceae
Origin	India
Description	Medium to large tropical fruit tree producing the largest fruits borne on small leafless stalks. Edible portion is the fleshy carpel (Perianth). Rarely grown as a plantation crop; more commonly used as a shade tree or mixed crop.
Uses	– Rich in vitamins A and C, carbohydrates, and minerals. – Tender jackfruits used as vegetables. – Skin and leaves used as cattle feed. – Timber valued for furniture. – Latex contains resins. – Pickles, dehydrated leather, and canned flakes. – Nectar prepared from pulp. – Rind is rich in pectin; flakes, seeds, and core also contain calcium pectate.
Cultivation Areas	Assam, Bihar, Kerala, Tamil Nadu. Cultivated over 13,200 ha in India.
Climate	Thrives in warm humid climates of hill slopes and plains from sea level to 1200m. Ideal temperature: 22-35°C. Often used as a shade tree in coffee plantations.
Soils	Grows well in rich, deep, alluvial, well-drained soils. Can also grow in sandy loam or lateritic soils with adequate nutrients and moisture. Sensitive to water stagnation.
Propagation	Commonly propagated by seeds. Seeds should be sown immediately after extraction; viability decreases with storage. Soaking seeds in NAA (25 ppm) or GA3 (500 ppm) for 24 hours improves germination. Seedlings are raised in pots or polythene bags. Air layering, grafting (Inarching, epicotyle), and budding (Forket, chip, patch) are also used. Inarching is practiced with seedlings or A. hirsuta rootstocks. Vivipary is not uncommon.
Varieties	– Soft-fleshed: Juicy, soft pulp; taste varies from very sweet to insipid. – Firm-fleshed: Firm, crispy pulp; variable sweetness. – Rudrakshi: Mainly for rootstock. – Ceylon Jack: Notable variety. – NJT1, NJT2, NJT3, NJT4: Large fruits, low fiber, suitable for table use. – NJC1, NJC2, NJC3, NJC4: Small to medium-sized fruits, thin rind, soft flesh, suitable for culinary use.
Planting	Plough land in two directions; spacing: 12m x 12m in fertile soils (70 plants/ha) or 10m x 10m / 11m x 11m in average soils. Best planting time is June-August.
Irrigation	Generally not irrigated but sensitive to drought. Irrigation during dry periods is essential in arid regions.
Manuring	Requires adequate nutrition for good cropping. Apply 80 kg FYM annually along with chemical fertilizers. Fertilizer Schedule: – 1-3 years: 200g N, 120g P₂O₅, 60g K₂O – 4-7 years: 400g N, 240g P₂O₅, 120g K₂O – 7 years and above: 600g N, 300g P₂O₅, 240g K₂O Apply full FYM, P₂O₅, K₂O in June; half nitrogen in June and rest in February-March.
Flowering	Monoecious tree with separate male and female flowers. Male flowers do not develop into fruits. Female flowers appear on footstalks, primary and secondary branches. Starts flowering 7-8 years after planting. Flowering occurs from December to March.
Harvesting	Fruits mature 7-8 years after planting, with the season from March to June. Harvesting Indices: – Dull hollow sound when tapped. – Last leaf of peduncle turns yellow. – Spines are well-developed and spaced. – Spines yield to moderate pressure. – Aromatic odor development. For distant markets, harvest firm fruits without aroma. Tender jackfruit for culinary use is harvested before seed hardening.
Yield	Ranges from 20-100 fruits per tree. Fruit weight varies from 10-30 kg.

Litchi cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Name	Litchi chinensis
Family	Sapindaceae
Origin	Southern China
Description	Subtropical fruit crop known for its excellent quality, pleasant flavor, juicy pulp (aril), and attractive red color. Popular both as a fresh and dried fruit; used in squash and canning. An excellent source of Vitamin C but contains minimal protein, fat, and minerals.
Introduction to India	Introduced by the end of the 17th century. India ranks second in global production, with North Bihar being a major growing area.
Climate	Requires a moist subtropical climate with freedom from frost, high humidity, rich deep soil, and abundant moisture. Thrives at 30°C. Ideal maximum temperatures during flowering and fruit development are 21°C in February to 38°C in June. Dry, hot winds can cause fruit cracking and damage the pulp.
Soils	Prefers fairly deep, well-drained loam soils rich in organic matter. Sandy loam or clay loam with a pH of 5.5 to 7.0 is ideal. High lime content is beneficial; add lime if soil is deficient.
Varieties	Notable varieties include Saharanpur Early Bedana, Dehra Doon, Culkattia, Muzaffarpur, Late Bedana, and Swarna Roopa. Swarna Roopa is an improved variety.
Propagation	Vegetative propagation is preferred as seed-raised plants take 7-12 years to bear fruit and are often of inferior quality. Common methods: air layering (best in June) and gootee.
Planting	Clear and level land, dig 1m x 1m x 1m pits, and fill with a mixture of FYM (20-25 kg), bone meal, and sulphate of potash (400g) with soil from a litchi orchard. Plant 6-9 month-old true-to-type plants. Spacing: 9-12 m. Best planting time is early monsoon or spring (with irrigation).
Training and Pruning	Train young plants for a good framework; once established, minimal pruning is needed except for removing dead or diseased branches. Heavy pruning can improve yield and quality in old trees but can also lead to excessive vegetative growth.
Manures and Fertilizers	Fertilizer requirements increase with age. First Year: – Compost: 20 kg – Castor Cake: 1 kg – Neem Cake: 0.5 kg – Single Super Phosphate: 2.5 kg – Muriate of Potash: 0.1 kg Increasing Amounts Each Year Up to 5-6 Years: – Compost: 10 kg increase annually – Castor Cake: 0.5 kg increase annually – Neem Cake: 0.5 kg increase annually – Single Super Phosphate: 0.5 kg increase annually – Muriate of Potash: 0.5 kg increase annually – Calcium Nitrate: 0.5 kg for full bearing trees Apply fertilizers just after harvesting during the rainy season. Avoid late-season fertilization to prevent excessive vegetative growth.
Irrigation	Critical period for irrigation is January to the onset of the monsoon. Maintain 50% soil moisture in the top 20-30 cm layer. Use basin method for young trees and flooding or furrow irrigation for mature trees. Frequency depends on soil type; generally weekly in summer. No irrigation needed during winter before fruit set.
Interculture	Maintain good sanitary conditions to avoid diseases. Avoid deep tillage to prevent root damage. Tillage should be limited to the top 7-10 cm of soil. Conduct 3-4 tillage operations a year and keep orchards weed-free. Summer cover crops are beneficial for maintaining humidity.
Inter-cropping	Inter-cropping with legumes like peas, beans, and grams can provide income while the litchi trees are not bearing. Papaya and phalsa can also be used as filler trees.
Harvesting	Fruits mature 50-60 days after fruit set. Maturity is indicated by color change, flattened tubercles, and smooth epicarp. Harvest in May and June. For local markets, harvest fully ripe fruits; for distant markets, pick when fruits start turning reddish.
Yield	Typically ranges from 80 to 150 kg per tree per year, depending on variety and tree vigor.

apple cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Name	Malus pumila / Malus sylvestris
Family	Rosaceae
Origin	South West Asia
Description	Apples are the most important temperate fruit and are considered the “King of temperate fruits. ” They are rich in carbohydrates, calcium, phosphorous, potassium, and vitamins B and C. Apples are grown extensively in India, particularly in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and parts of Uttar Pradesh. Cultivation has also spread to Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Nagaland, Meghalaya, and Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu. Apples are a false fruit (pome) with a fleshy thalamus as the edible portion.
Climate	Requires 1000 to 1500 hours of chilling below 7°C during winter (mid-December to mid-March). Needs an average temperature of 21 to 24°C during active growth. Suitable areas have frost-free springs, adequate summer sunshine, and minimal temperature fluctuations. Low temperatures, rains, and cloudy weather during flowering hinder bee activity, affecting pollination. Well-distributed rainfall of 100 to 125 cm is ideal. Long droughts and excessive rain or fog at fruit maturity can reduce fruit size and quality.
Soils	Prefers loamy soils rich in organic matter with a pH of 5.5 to 6.5. Soils should have good drainage and aeration and be free from hard substrata and water logging. Presence of lime in the soil is beneficial.
Varieties	Apples come in diploid and triploid varieties: – Diploids: Red Delicious, Yellow Delicious, Jonathan – Triploids: Baldwin, Beauty, Tropical Beauty Recommended cultivars include Reddelicious, Yellowdelicious, Jonathan, Baldwin, Beauty, Rome Beauty, Ambri, Sunheri, Ambstarking, Ambroyal, Ambrich, Chaubattia Princess, Chaubattia Anupam, and Ambred Red. Ambri is indigenous to the Kashmir valley. Notable hybrids include Lal Ambri (Red Delicious x Ambri), Sunehri (Ambri x Golden Delicious), and others.
Propagation	Commercially propagated through vegetative methods like budding or grafting. Shield budding is done in June with current season’s growth. Tongue grafting is ideal and done in spring. Popular rootstocks include Malling IX and crab apple (Malus baccata). Malling rootstocks control plant vigor and resist pests.
Planting	Plant in square or hexagonal layouts in flat or valley areas; use contour/terrace planting on slopes. Pits of 1m³ are prepared and filled with a mixture of FYM (40-50 kg), super phosphate (500 g), and top soil. Soil is allowed to settle for a month. Planting is done late in winter after frost danger, using one-year-old plants. Spacing ranges from 7 to 10 m depending on rootstock vigor.
Training and Pruning	Train according to growth habit and rootstock vigor. Use a modified leader system with 3-5 main branches and a clear trunk of 1.0 to 1.5 m. Prune to maintain balance between vegetative growth and fruit production. Prune dormant trees in December-January. Spur-bearing trees need pruning to encourage new spur development.
Manures and Fertilizers	Begin application at planting. Fertilizer dose depends on soil fertility, tree age, and cultural practices. Recommended ratio is N, P, K: 70:30:70 g/year age of the tree, stabilized at 700:350:700 g per tree after 10 years. Supplement with FYM (up to 100 kg). In off years, reduce NPK doses to 500 g, 250 g, and 400 g, respectively. Apply FYM, P, and K in December-January, and nitrogen in February-March, with split doses before bud break and one month after flowering. Fertilizers should be applied 30 cm from the trunk up to the canopy drip line.
Irrigation	Apple orchards often lack irrigation, especially in hilly areas. Uniform rainfall is ideal; otherwise, supplement with irrigation during critical periods, especially from April to August. During summer, water at 7-10 day intervals, and rest at 3-4 weeks intervals.
Harvesting	Apples are climacteric fruits; they mature on the tree but ripen off it. Harvest fruits at proper maturity to ensure quality. Indicators of maturity include TSS of the fruit pulp, ease of separation from the spur, change in ground color, seed color, fruit firmness, and days from full bloom. Multiple pickings may be necessary.
Yield	Full bearing trees yield 40-100 kg of fruit. Bearing generally starts 5 years after planting and can continue for about 50 years. Some varieties may show alternate bearing.

peach cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Name	Prunus persica L.
Family	Rosaceae
Origin	China
Description	Peaches are important stone fruits grown in warm temperate zones. They have an attractive color, excellent taste, and are rich in nutrients. Peaches have low chilling requirements and early flowering. They are processed into products like canned, dried, frozen, jam, juice, and beverages. Peach kernels are rich in fats, proteins, fiber, and minerals. Nectarines are smooth-skinned peaches classified as P. persica var. nucipersica. Peaches are drupes with clingstone and freestone varieties.
Climate	Requires humid climates with cold winters and dry summers. Sensitive to low temperatures; swelling buds can be damaged at -6.5°C. Most varieties need 75-850 hours of chilling. Sites should be free from early spring frost and avoid deep valleys where cold air settles. Gentle slopes are ideal.
Soils	Prefers deep sandy loam soil rich in organic matter with a pH of 5.8 to 6.8. Avoid waterlogged, fertile, and heavy soils that cause excessive vegetative growth and winter injury.
Varieties	– Table Cultivars: Yellow-fleshed, freestone varieties with regular bearing habits. Examples: Alexander, Elberta, J.H. Hale, Cardinal. – Canning Cultivars: Yellow-fleshed, clingstone varieties suitable for canning. Examples: Certex, Halford, Fortuna, Crawfords Early, Golden Bush. – Nectarine Cultivars: Smooth-skinned varieties preferred for table use. Examples: Nectared, Sun Grand, Sunlite, Sun Red, Sun Ripe.
Propagation	Propagated by grafting and budding. Rootstocks include peach seedlings, plum, apricot, almond, and sometimes P. mira. Nematode-resistant rootstocks include Nemaguard, Yunnan, Nemared, and Shalin. Common methods: tongue or cleft grafting, “T” or ring budding.
Planting	Done in winter. In hilly areas, use contour or terracing; in plains, use square planting. Pits (1m³) are dug and refilled with top soil, FYM (40 kg), and chloropyriphos solution. Planting distance varies: 6-7 m in hills, 3×3 m for high density.
Training and Pruning	Uses modified leader or open centre systems. Peaches require heavy pruning due to fruiting on previous season’s growth. Pruning includes thinning out and heading back. Aim for 25-50 cm of annual growth.
Manures and Fertilizers	Requires higher nitrogen than other temperate fruits. Non-bearing trees get 454 g of N per year of age; bearing trees get 1100 g each of N and K, double the amount of P, and 15-25 tonnes of FYM per hectare. Apply FYM with P and K in December-January, and N in spring before flowering and again a month later if irrigation is available. Nutrients should be applied within 0-60 cm radius from the trunk and mixed up to 15 cm depth.
Irrigation	Essential for optimum fruit size and quality. Ensure soil moisture before leaf and flower emergence. Frequent irrigation is needed during fruit development to prevent fruit drop and size reduction. Stop irrigation before harvesting and during dormancy to harden plants.
Interculture	Regular cultivation is needed. Ploughing should not exceed 10 cm depth. Sowing cover crops or green manure after fruit harvest can be beneficial.
Intercropping	Utilize young orchard spaces with short-duration crops like cowpea, soybean, turmeric, or pineapple. Avoid exhaustive crops like okra and onion.
Crop Regulation	Essential for quality fruit production. Thinning should be based on fruit-to-leaf ratio, spacing, and expected fruit size. Generally, 30-40 leaves per fruit is ideal with 15-20 cm spacing between fruits.
Harvesting	Harvest peaches at optimum maturity to ensure quality and reduce packing losses. Indicators include days to maturity, fruit size, firmness, pit discoloration, freeness of pit, taste, ground color, sugar, acidity, and sugar ratio. Harvest in 3-4 pickings at 4-day intervals. For distant markets, harvest when fruit is colored but still firm; for local markets, harvest when fully ripe. Peak harvest is mid-May to mid-July.
Yield	Peaches begin bearing 2 years after planting and can bear for about 20 years. Yield varies from 50 to 125 kg per tree in hills.

pear cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Name	(1) French Pear or European Pear or Soft Pear: Pyrus communis (2) Oriental Pear or Japanese Pear: Pyrus pyrifolia
Family	Rosaceae
Origin	South-West Asia
Description	Pears are an important temperate fruit, second in importance to apples in South India. They are rich in carbohydrates (sugars, starch, cellulose) and minerals (calcium, phosphorus, sulfur). There are two main types: European (French) pears and Oriental (Japanese) pears. European pears have a persistent calyx, fleshy pedicels, and a pyriform shape, while Oriental pears have a deciduous calyx, non-fleshy pedicels, and an apple-like shape. Pears are highly perishable, which limits their cultivation, and are grown at lower altitudes than apples.
Climate	Pears can tolerate temperatures as low as -26°C during dormancy and as high as 45°C during the growing period. Many cultivars require 1,200 hours of chilling below 7°C for satisfactory flowering and fruiting.
Soils	Prefers deep, well-drained, fertile, medium-textured soils with a pH of 6.0 to 7.5. Pears tolerate wet soils but are less drought-tolerant compared to apples. A soil depth of about 6 feet is ideal.
Varieties	Most pear varieties are self-unfruitful and require pollenizers. Recommended varieties include: Baghu Gosha, Conference, Early China, Bartlett, Favourite, Hardy, Nashpati, and Kieffer.
Pollination and Fruit Set	Pears, especially European and Japanese varieties, often require pollenizers. For effective pollination, plant every third tree in every third row with a pollenizer or have one or two pollenizer rows after every 2-6 rows of the main variety. Dependable pollenizer varieties include Vickson, Santa Rosa, Red Heart, and Elephant Heart.
Propagation	Pears are commercially propagated by Shield (T) budding. Common rootstocks include wild Himalayan pears (Pyrus pashia, P. pyrifolia, P. kashiana). Dwarf trees are produced using Quince-D rootstock, but some commercial varieties are incompatible with Quince-C. Double working with an intermediate rootstock like Old Home can address incompatibility. Quince A is a vigorous rootstock.
Planting	Pits of size 1m³ are dug and filled with soil and compost. Initial spacing is 3m x 2m, which is adjusted to 6m x 4m after 4-5 years. For pear on Quince-D rootstock, use a planting distance of 3.5m x 1.1m.
Manures and Fertilizers	An annual dose of 600g N, 150g P, and 300g K per tree is optimal. Pears grown in poor soils may need additional calcium to prevent disorders like black end and cork spot.
Training and Pruning	Pears are trained using the “Modified Leader Method,” developing 4-5 well-spaced primaries and then heading back the leader. Pruning includes thinning out and heading back of outward-growing laterals. Pears bear fruit on spurs on 2-year-old wood, with spurs continuing to bear for over 6 years. Dormant season pruning is ideal, avoiding early pruning that may lead to cold injury.
Irrigation	Heavier soils require maintaining 50% or more of the maximum available moisture in the upper 1m for optimal growth. Lighter or gravelly soils need more frequent and heavier irrigation.
Harvesting	Harvest pears when fully mature but still firm for fresh consumption, or green for canning and distant markets. Harvest individually by twisting, not pulling. Harvest in 2-3 pickings at 3-4 day intervals.
Yield	Pear trees in India have an average bearing life of 60 years, yielding 30-40 tonnes per hectare per year.

plum cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Names	Prunus domestica (European plum) Prunus salicina (Japanese plum)
Family	Rosaceae
Origins	European plum: Caspian Sea (Caucasus region) Japanese plum: China
Description	Plums are an important temperate fruit used both fresh and preserved. They rank next to peaches in economic importance among stone fruits. There are two main types: European and Japanese plums. Introduced to Himachal Pradesh in 1870, European plums are grown at higher elevations (1300-2000m) while Japanese plums are cultivated at lower elevations (1000-1600m). Both types supply sugars, minerals (potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc), and vitamins (A, B).
Climate	European plums need 800-1000 hours below 7.2°C for winter chilling. Japanese plums require 700-800 hours below 7.2°C. Plums need areas free from spring frost and with 100-125 cm rainfall well distributed throughout the growing season. Avoid high wind velocities, cyclones, and hail-prone areas.
Soil	Prefers deep sandy loam with good drainage. European plums also perform well on heavy loam or clayey soil. Avoid waterlogged, poorly drained, or excessively saline soils. Ideal soil depth is at least 6 feet.
Varieties	Recommended Varieties: Santa Rosa, Beauty, Grand Duke, Plum Red, Kelsey, Wickson, Burbank, Victoria.Self-Fruitful Cultivars: Beauty, Santa Rosa, Mariposa.Self-Unfruitful Cultivars: Kelsey, Eldorado, Wickson, Larado, Farmosa.
Propagation	Vegetative propagation through grafting and budding is used. Common rootstocks include wild apricot (Zardalu) and Myrobalan B. Grafting methods include tongue grafting, chip budding, and “T” budding. Plants take about 2 years to reach standard size.
Planting	Plant in pits of size 60cm³ at a spacing of 5-6m. Use one to two-year-old budded plants and plant during spring before bud break, especially under extreme winter conditions.
Manures and Fertilizers	For a bearing tree (7 years and above), apply 40 kg of FYM, 2 kg of Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (500g N), 1560g of Single Super Phosphate (250g P), and 1170g of Muriate of Potash (700g K). Apply FYM, P, and K during December and January, and half of the nitrogen in spring before flowering, with the remaining half a month later.
Training	Trees are trained according to growth habit and rootstock vigor, generally using the “Open Centre System” to develop a strong framework and ensure proper shape.
Pruning	Pruning is necessary to renew spurs (European plums) and balance vegetative and reproductive growth (Japanese plums). Prune to remove 75-80% of new growth each season for European plums, and ensure 30-50cm of extension growth annually. Japanese plums require more severe pruning due to profuse cropping on shoots.
Irrigation	Plums need adequate water throughout the growing season, especially from May to June during rapid fruit development. In India, where rainfed conditions are common, irrigation is crucial during drought conditions.
Harvesting	Plums are climacteric fruits and do not ripen fully on the tree. Harvest at the correct maturity stage based on: days from full bloom, fruit firmness, total soluble solids, and ground color change (green to yellow or red depending on cultivar). Fruits are typically harvested from the second week of May to the third week of July.
Yield	Fully grown plum trees yield 60-70 kg of fruit. Harvesting times vary by variety and region.

Cherry Cultivation:

Aspect	Details
Botanical Names	(1) Sweet Cherry: Prunus avium (2) Sour Cherry: Prunus cerasus
Family	Rosaceae
Origin	South Central Europe and Asia Minor
Description	Cherries are important temperate fruits used both fresh and in preserved forms. Sweet cherries are typically used as desserts, while sour cherries are used for cooking and canning.
Climate	Sweet cherries cannot tolerate frost or warm climates. Sour cherries tolerate frost but also prefer cooler conditions.
Soil	Ideal for well-drained deep gravelly or sandy loam soils.
Varieties	Sweet Cherry Varieties: Emperor Francis, Early Purple Blackheart, Compact Lambert, Jubilee, Sam, Summit, Sue, Sunburst, English Morello. Sour Cherry Varieties: Montmorency, North Star, English Morello. Most commercial varieties are self-incompatible and some are cross-incompatible.
Propagation	Commercially propagated by “T” budding or inverted “T” budding. Common rootstocks include Prunus cerasoides, P. mahaleb, and P. padus. Different states use different rootstocks based on their characteristics.
Planting	In India, cherry cultivation is confined to hilly areas on sloppy lands. Planting is done on contour or terrace systems. For sour cherries, use a spacing of 6m x 5m, and for sweet cherries, 7m x 6m. Pits are filled with a 1:1 mixture of topsoil and FYM. Grafts less than two years old are planted. Varieties should be able to pollinate each other.
Training	Cherry trees are trained using the “modified leader system.” At planting, the central leader is retained, and 3-5 wide-angled branches are selected and spirally arranged. The lowest branch should be 40-60cm above ground. During subsequent dormant prunings, selected main and secondary branches are managed to develop a strong and moderately spreading tree.
Pruning	Requires corrective pruning rather than heavy heading back. Pruning focuses on removing dead, diseased, and crossing branches, and keeping the center of the tree open. Fruits are borne laterally on spurs of one-year-old shoots, which have a productive life of 1-12 years, needing less renewal pruning.
Manuring	Requires essential nutrients for growth and fruit quality. Fertilizer needs vary based on tree age, soil type, fertility, management practices, and expected yield.
Irrigation	Typically grown under rainfed conditions due to sloppy lands and limited irrigation water. During April-May, when rainfall is less, frequent watering is necessary. Weekly irrigation during fruit growth is recommended for better fruit size and quality.
Harvesting	Cherries start bearing from the 5th year and reach full bearing by 10 years, continuing for up to 50 years. Harvesting at the right maturity stage is crucial for quality. Fruits should be picked when the surface color changes from green to red. For processing, pick without the stem. Avoid harvesting wet fruit to prevent cracking and rot.
Yield	Average yield is 15 to 20 kg per tree per year.

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