Agriculture Extension Notes For IBPS AFO

Agriculture Extension Notes

Meaning and Definition of Education:

• Education:
  • Process of bringing desirable change into human behavior.
  • Imparting or acquiring knowledge and habits through instruction or study.
  • Modern definition: Producing desirable changes in knowledge (things known), attitudes (things felt), and skills (things done).
• Components:
  • Knowledge:
    • Includes facts, concepts, principles, and relationships.
    • Example: Educating a farmer on sweet corn cultivation (change in knowledge).
  • Attitude:
    • Feeling towards an object, person, situation, or idea.
    • Example: Changing a woman farmer’s negative attitude towards mushroom cultivation (things felt).
  • Skills:
    • Ability to perform tasks.
    • Example: Improving a cotton farmer’s skills in pesticide application (things done).
• Goals:
  • Progressive learning towards established goals.
  • Directed towards socially, culturally, and economically desirable ends.
  • Emphasis on behavioral changes in knowledge, skills, attitude, and understanding.

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Types of Education:

1. Formal Education:
   • Institutional activity, uniform and subject-oriented.
   • Full-time, sequential, and hierarchically structured.
   • Leads to certificates, degrees, and diplomas.
   • Examples: Education in schools and colleges.
   • Characteristics:
     • Hierarchically structured.
     • Full-time education.
     • Technical and professional training.
     • Variety of specialized programs.
     • Chronologically graded from primary school through university.
2. Non-formal Education:
   • Organized educational activities outside the formal system.
   • Serves identifiable learning clienteles and objectives.
   • Examples: Extension education, such as training farmers on pesticide application.
   • Characteristics:
     • Flexible.
     • Life, environment, and learner-oriented.
     • Diversified in content and method.
     • Non-authoritarian.
     • Built on learner participation.
     • Organizes and enhances human and environmental potential.
3. Informal Education:
   • Lifelong process.
   • Acquiring attitudes, values, skills, and knowledge from daily experiences and the environment.
   • Sources: Family, work, daily interactions.

Types of Agriculture Extension

Aspect	Formal Education	Non-formal Education	Informal Education
Definition	Institutional activity, uniform, subject-oriented	Organized education outside the formal system	Lifelong process of learning from daily experiences
Examples	Schools, colleges	Extension education (e.g., farmer training)	Learning from family, work, play, media
Characteristics
– Structure	Hierarchically structured	Flexible	Least controlled
– Duration	Full-time	Life, environment, and learner-oriented	Lifelong
– Curriculum	Sequential, fixed curriculum	Diversified content and method	Accidental, unclear, often quantitative information
– Authority	Teacher-centered	Non-authoritarian, learner participation	Environmental and situational
– Certification	Certificates, degrees, diplomas	No formal certification	No formal certification
– Content	Subject-specific	Specific learning objectives	Includes emotions, beliefs, and superstitions
– Environment	Classroom-based	Flexible, often outside traditional settings	Real-life interactions

Differences between Formal Education and Extension Education

Sr	Formal Education	Extension Education
1	Teaching within institution premises	Teaching outside institution premises
2	Students study subjects	Learners study problems
3	Authority with the teacher	Authority with the farmers
4	Compulsory class attendance	Voluntary participation
5	Vertical teaching	Horizontal teaching
6	Fixed curriculum	No fixed curriculum, learner participation in curriculum
7	Homogeneous learners	Heterogeneous learners with diverse goals
8	Rigid structure	Flexible structure
9	Theoretical approach	Practical approach
10	Degrees/diplomas awarded	No degrees/diplomas
11	Strict institutional norms, no learner choice	Freedom and choice left to learners
12	Knowledge flows from teacher to learner	Extension agent teaches through local leaders

Differences between Formal Education and Informal Education

Sr	Formal Education	Informal Education
1	Educational growth for children/youth careers	Working with adults/youth in real-life situations
2	Compulsory participation	Voluntary participation
3	No variations in learners’ characteristics	Variations in age, education, experience, needs
4	Inflexible teaching plans	Flexible teaching plans
5	Classroom-based	No classrooms, real-life settings
6	Prescribed books, fixed periods, exams, curriculum	No prescribed books, fixed periods, exams, curriculum
7	Teacher instructs students	Teachers also learn from those they teach

Agriculture Extension Education

Aspect	Details
Meaning	Derived from Latin “ex” (out) and “tensio” (stretching). Education stretched to rural areas.
Definitions	Out-of-school education for adults and youth to learn by doing.
Need	Bridge gaps, demonstrate technologies, educate on various topics, solve rural problems, national development, technology transfer.
Objectives	Raise living standards, provide facilities, increase income, develop rural areas, promote self-dependence.
Philosophy	Respect culture, social progress, education for all, practical teaching, leadership development, democratic approach.
Educational Process	Planning, teaching, and evaluation in a continuous cycle.

 

Steps in the Extension Education Process

Step	Details
1. Collection of Facts and Analysis of Situation	Collect facts about people and their enterprises, and analyze the economic, social, cultural, physical, and technological environment. Surveys and rapport building help in identifying problems and resources. E.g., identifying low farm income.
2. Setting Realistic Objectives	Involve the community to set specific, limited objectives. Objectives should focus on desired behavioral changes and economic and social outcomes. E.g., increasing crop yield by 20% to raise farm income.
3. Teaching	Choose relevant content and appropriate teaching methods and aids. Select research findings of practical importance. E.g., teaching about HYV seeds, fertilizers, and plant protection using demonstrations and training.
4. Evaluation	Conduct re-surveys to determine the extent to which objectives are met. Identify deficiencies and measure success. E.g., a re-survey showed a 10% increase in crop yield against a 20% target, highlighting issues like poor water management.
5. Reconsideration	Review the entire program based on evaluation results. Address new problems or deficiencies and set new teaching objectives. E.g., focusing on water management training and securing credit for inputs.

Principles of Extension Education

Principle	Explanation
1. Principle of Interests and Needs	Extension must start with the interests and needs of the people, even if they differ from the extension worker’s views. Programs should satisfy realistic needs with available resources.
2. Grass-roots Principle	Effective extension work starts at the family or village level and spreads like grass. Programs should be locally relevant.
3. Principle of Cultural Differences	Extension approaches must suit the culture of the target audience. Different cultures require different methods.
4. Principle of Cultural Change	Extension work should adapt to and facilitate cultural changes. Extension workers need to gain trust and demonstrate the benefits of new technologies.
5. Principle of Cooperation and Participation	Active participation of the people in program development and execution is crucial for success.
6. Principle of Learning by Doing	Practical, hands-on learning methods are most effective.
7. Adaptability Principle	Extension teaching methods must be flexible to suit different audiences and situations.
8. Principle of Leadership	Involve local leaders to promote new ideas and technologies effectively.
9. Whole Family Principle	Engage all family members in extension programs as they influence decision-making and overall family welfare.
10. Principle of Trained Specialists	Specialists link research and practice. They should have broad knowledge and stay updated with recent scientific findings.
11. Principle of Satisfaction	Extension programs must satisfy the needs of the people for sustained engagement and adoption of innovations.
12. Principle of Evaluation	Regular, unbiased evaluation of extension work is essential for measuring effectiveness and guiding future programs.
13. Principle of Applied Science and Democracy	Extension should apply scientific research to solve practical problems, ensuring freedom of thought and objective analysis.

Approaches to Extension Work

Approach	Details
1. General Agricultural Extension Approach	Focuses on increasing national agricultural production through top-down planning. Large field personnel, high costs, and central government control.
2. Commodity Specialized Approach	Focuses on a specific commodity, integrating research, extension, input supply, and marketing. Control by commodity organizations, benefiting mainly large-scale farmers.
3. Training and Visit Approach	Rigid pattern of farmer visits and in-service training of field staff. Centralized planning, high costs, and focus on specific crop production increases.
4. Agricultural Extension Participatory Approach	Emphasizes farmer participation and group learning. Local needs drive planning, involving farmers in technology development and evaluation. Lower costs but higher demands on extension agents.
5. Project Approach	Uses significant external resources for short-term demonstration of new technologies. Central control, often funded by international agencies. Success measured by short-term changes.
6. Farming Systems Development Approach	Localized technology development through partnership of research and extension. Shared control, high costs, and slow results. Focus on sustainable adoption by farmers.
7. Cost Sharing Approach	Local farmers share the cost of extension programs. Planning and control are shared, with success measured by local financial contributions and participation.
8. Educational Institution Approach	Extension through non-formal instruction by colleges or universities. Success measured by attendance and participation, fostering a link between research and practice.

 

Agriculture Extension: Meaning, Definitions, and Dimensions

Definitions

Agricultural Extension involves applying scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education. It entails the transfer of agricultural technology to bring about desirable changes in individuals or communities. Agricultural extension is an educational process focused on agricultural topics, aiming to improve productivity and farmer behavior.

Task of Agriculture Extension

1. Supply of Inputs: Ensuring timely supply of the required quantity of inputs.
2. Increasing Production: Enhancing production through double/multiple cropping and improved technology.
3. Linkage: Establishing strong connections between scientists and farmers, facilitating feedback from farmers to scientists.
4. Professional Method: Engaging professional extension workers using professional methods.
5. Non-formal Education: Emphasizing the transfer of technology through non-formal education.
6. Behavioral Changes: Fostering behavioral changes in farmers.
7. Communication Methods: Utilizing proven communication methods for the rapid adoption and diffusion of innovations.

Scope of Agriculture Extension

The scope of agricultural extension encompasses the following nine areas of program emphasis:

1. Efficiency in agricultural production.
2. Efficiency in marketing, distribution, and utilization.
3. Conservation, development, and use of natural resources.
4. Management on the farm and in the home.
5. Family living.
6. Youth development.
7. Leadership development.
8. Community development.
9. Public affairs.

Agriculture Extension Programme Planning

Meaning, Process, Principles, and Steps in Programme Development

Definitions

• Programme: A proclamation, prospectus, or listing of events to be done in a chronological order.
• Planning: Designing a course of action to achieve desired ends, involving the study of past and present to forecast the future, and determining the goals and actions required.
• Project: A specification of work to be done or procedures to accomplish a particular objective.
• Extension Programme: A statement of the situation, objectives, problems, and solutions.
• Programme Planning: A decision-making process involving the analysis of the existing situation and problems, evaluation of alternatives, and selection of relevant solutions based on local needs and resources through cooperative efforts.

Importance of Programme Planning

1. Ensures careful consideration of what is to be done and why.
2. Provides a guide to judge new proposals.
3. Establishes objectives for measuring progress and evaluation.
4. Helps distinguish important problems from minor ones.
5. Develops a common understanding between various functionaries and organizations.
6. Ensures continuity despite personnel changes.
7. Helps develop leadership.
8. Promotes efficiency and avoids waste of time and money.
9. Justifies expenditure and ensures the flow of funds.
10. Provides a written statement for public use.

Principles of Programme Planning

1. Analysis of Past, Present, and Future Needs: Collect adequate information about the people and their situation to analyze the present and determine future needs.
2. Clear Objectives: Objectives should be significant, satisfying important needs, and attainable.
3. Priority Setting: Fix priorities based on available resources and time.
4. Resource Availability and Utilization: Clearly state how funds, facilities, supplies, and personnel will be utilized.
5. Agreement at Various Levels: Ensure that programmes at different levels conform to each other and do not work at cross purposes.
6. Involvement of Local People: Engage local people in programme formation and implementation.
7. Involvement of Relevant Institutions and Organizations: Include necessary institutions and organizations for support.
8. Definite Plan of Work: Prepare a detailed plan of work for execution.
9. Evaluation and Reconsideration: Include provisions for periodic monitoring and evaluation to adjust the programme as needed.
10. Equitable Distribution of Benefits: Ensure benefits are equitably distributed among community members, emphasizing the weaker sections.

Steps in Extension Programme Planning

1. Collection of Facts: Gather data about people, their enterprises, technology levels, facilities, constraints, values, etc.
2. Analysis of Situation: Analyze the collected data with local people to understand the situation.
3. Identification of Problems: Identify urgent and significant problems that can be solved with available resources and within time limits.
4. Determination of Objectives and Goals: Set clear objectives and specific goals based on significant needs identified.
5. Developing Plan of Work and Calendar of Operations: Create a detailed plan of work and a calendar of operations specifying when and how activities will be performed.
6. Follow Through Plan of Work and Calendar of Operations: Perform activities such as training, communication, method demonstrations, regular visits, and monitoring.
7. Evaluation of Progress: Continuously evaluate progress to determine if objectives are being met.
8. Reconsideration and Revision of the Programme: Make necessary adjustments to the programme based on evaluation results and feedback from participants and relevant organizations.

Extension Systems in India	Content
Pre-Independence Era Efforts	– Sriniketan Project (1921): – Initiated by Rabindranath Tagore. – Focused on rural reconstruction. – Activities included agriculture demonstrations, youth training, adult education, and health cooperatives.
	– Gurgaon Experiment (1920): – Led by F.L. Brayne. – Aimed at rural upliftment. – Activities included agricultural development, health improvement, and social reforms.
	– Marthandam Project (1921): – Started by Dr. Spencer Hatch. – Focused on all-round rural development. – Covered aspects like agriculture, rural industry, cooperation, and education.
	– Seva Gram (1920): – Initiated by Mahatma Gandhi. – Emphasized self-help, economic equality, basic education, and social harmony.
Post-Independence Era Efforts	– Etawah Pilot Project: – Focused on agricultural extension and development in Etawah district.
	– Nilokheri Experiment: – A rural reconstruction project aimed at socio-economic upliftment.
Present Extension System: Department of Agriculture	– Structure: – Refers to the organizational setup of the Department of Agriculture. – Includes hierarchical levels and functional divisions.
	– Function: – Describes the roles and responsibilities of the Department of Agriculture. – Includes implementing developmental programs, promoting agricultural practices, and supporting farmers.
Developmental Programmes in Pre-Independence Era	– Various rural development initiatives before India gained independence. – Programs focused on agricultural improvement, health, education, social reforms, and economic empowerment in rural areas.

 

Programme	Year	Objectives	Implementation
FIRKA VIKAS YOJANA	1946	– Attainment of Gandhian ideal of “Gram Swaraj”. – Rural communication and water supply development.	– Government sponsored. – Initiated in 1946 in 34 Firkas. – Expanded to 50 Firkas in April 1950.
Etawah Pilot Project	1948	– Rural reconstruction. – Mental empowerment. – Agricultural and animal husbandry development.	– Initiated in 1948 in Etawah district. – Led by Lt. Col. Albert Mayer.
Nilokheri Project	1948	– Self-sufficiency. – Vocational training. – Land cultivation.	– Initiated by S.K. Dey in 1948. – Provided shelter for immigrants from Pakistan.
Various Extension/Agriculture Development		– See below	– Launched by ICAR/Government of India.
– Intensive Agricultural District Programme	1960	– Increase income of cultivators. – Expand village economic resources. – Create employment. – Demonstrate effective food production technology.	– Collaborative effort between government and Ford Foundation.
– Intensive Agricultural Area Programme	1964	– Develop scientific agriculture in areas with high potential. – Focus on key crops like Wheat, Rice, etc.	– Aimed at covering at least 20% of cultivated area.
– High Yielding Varieties Programme	1966	– Boost agricultural production using high-yielding varieties. – Attain self-sufficiency in cereals.	– Combined with improved inputs like fertilizer, irrigation, etc.
– Institution-Village Linkage Programme	1995	– Introduce stable and sustainable technologies in small farms. – Foster collaboration between researchers and farmers.	– Operated on a scientist-farmer participatory model.
– Operational Research Project	1975	– Test and adopt new agricultural technologies on farmers’ fields. – Identify constraints to technology adoption.	– Implemented at the operational level under existing resources and socio-economic conditions.
– National Agriculture Technology Project	1998	– Accelerate technology flow from research to farmers. – Improve dissemination of location-specific technologies.	– Largest World Bank-assisted agriculture project.
– National Agricultural Innovation Project	2006	– Facilitate sustainable transformation of Indian agriculture. – Accelerate collaboration among stakeholders.	– Managed by ICAR with World Bank support.

 

Program	Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)
Launch Year	August 2007
Objectives	1. Orient agricultural development strategies to achieve 4% annual growth in the agricultural sector during the 11th plan. 2. Incentivize states to provide additional resources in their State Plans to bridge critical gaps.
Sponsor	Central Government
Funding Pattern	100% funded by the central government
Ministry/Department	Agriculture Department
Beneficiaries	Individual, Family, Community, Women
Benefit Type	Material, Loan, Subsidy
Eligibility criteria	All farmers in the state
How to Avail	Through Agriculture Department (Nodal Department) or other allied sectors (Fisheries Department, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, etc.)
Objectives (continued)	3. Increase public investment in Agriculture and allied sectors. 4. Provide flexibility and autonomy to states in planning and executing Agriculture and allied sector schemes. 5. Ensure agriculture plans are based on agro-climatic conditions, technology, and resources. 6. Reflect local needs/crops/priorities in state agricultural plans. 7. Reduce yield gaps in important crops. 8. Maximize returns to farmers. 9. Bring quantifiable changes in production and productivity of Agriculture and allied sectors.
Areas of Focus	– Integrated Development of Food crops – Agriculture Mechanization – Soil Health and Productivity – Development of Rainfed Farming Systems – IPM – Market Infrastructure – Horticulture, AH, Dairying & Fisheries – Concept to Completion Projects – Support to Institutions promoting Agriculture and Horticulture – Organic and Bio-fertilizers – Innovative Schemes
Sectors Covered	Crop Cultivation, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries, Dairy Development, Agricultural Research and Education, Forestry and Wildlife, Plantation and Agricultural Marketing, Food Storage and Warehousing, Soil and Water Conservation, Agricultural Financial Institutions, other Agricultural Programmes and Cooperation.

 

Introduction:

• Agriculture in India influenced by stability, sustainability, diversification, and commercialization.
• Liberalization and WTO membership transformed Indian agriculture.
• Low crop productivity and market prices cause concern.
• Shift from production-led to farmer-led extension observed.
• Farmer-led approaches prioritize farmer consultation and participation.

Meaning of Farmer Led Extension (FLE):

• Utilizes farmer leaders as extensionists.
• Farmer-to-farmer technology transfer.
• Empowers farmers to share experiences and practices.

Concepts of FLE:

1. Farm Schools:
   • Demonstrate latest technologies to interested farmers.
   • Established to train farmers in advanced agricultural practices.
   • Objectives include doubling agricultural productivity and farm incomes.
2. Farmer Field Schools (FFS):
   • Non-formal educational activities.
   • Group-based learning, field-oriented.
   • Empowers farmers to solve field problems.
   • Farmers learn through observation, experimentation, and group activities.
   • Developed from the concept that farmers learn optimally from field observation.
   • Started to reduce reliance on pesticides in rice in Indonesia in 1989.

Principles and Basic Concepts:

• Grow a healthy crop: Promotes plant recovery and natural defenses.
• Conserve natural enemies: Utilizes biological control methods.
• Observe crops regularly: Informed decision-making based on field observations.
• Farmers become experts: Farmers develop expertise in their fields.
• Adult non-formal education: Assumes farmers have experience, focuses on participatory learning.
• Technically strong facilitator: Facilitators need technical skills and confidence.
• Based on crop phenology and time-limited: Training follows crop cycle, seasonal activities.
• Group study: Learning occurs in groups of about 25 farmers.
• Field School Site: Conducted in the farmers’ community.
• Building groups: Field schools develop as support groups.
• Basic science: Focuses on basic processes through field observations.
• Study fields [non-risk]: Small fields for group studies, allowing farmers to test new methods.
• Extension Workers as Facilitators Not Teachers: Facilitators guide rather than instruct.

Characteristics:

• Farmers as Experts: Learning by doing, farmers conduct their own field studies.
• The Field is the Primary Learning Material: Learning occurs in the field.
• Extension Workers as Facilitators: Facilitators guide rather than teach.
• The curriculum is Integrated: Various disciplines considered together.
• Training Follows the Seasonal Cycle: Training relates to the crop’s seasonal activities.
• Regular Group Meetings: Farmers meet at regular intervals to discuss progress.
• Learning materials are learner-generated: Farmers create their own learning materials.
• Group dynamics/team building: Training includes communication skill building and problem-solving.

Limitations:

• Time-consuming and cost-intensive: Requires significant time and resources.
• Women involvement: May have limitations in terms of gender inclusivity.
• Preparations and trained facilitators: Demands preparation and skilled facilitators.
• Reach of farmers: Limited to groups of 20-25 farmers.
• Facilitator’s ability: Depends on the facilitator’s ability to enable farmers.

Point	Classical Training and Visit (T&V)	Farmer Field School Evolution
Field-level extension officer’s job	Delivers pre-packaged “messages” from a research-extension linkage. Primary job is information transfer, not technical expertise, which is reserved for Specialists not at the field level.	Technical Facilitator: Every FFS trainer should have basic technical skills (at least able to grow the crop, or rear animals, etc.). Secondly, every FFS trainer should have group-oriented training and management skills. These skills are typically learned in a season-long Training of Trainers where they learn what they will teach. Master trainer with farming experience gained during Training of Trainer programmes in which each person is required to grow crops and carry out field studies so that they test what they will use in Field Schools later.
Experience of trainers	Variable, but most often lacking basic farming skills and experience. Field level staff given communication skills.	Master trainer with farming experience gained during Training of Trainer programmes in which each person is required to grow crops and carry out field studies so that they test what they will use in Field Schools later.
Information	Primarily top-down messages from distant research stations about situations presumed to be representative of farms. Recommendations are tested against conventional practices and new information about to the site emerges. Promotes local creativity.	Recommendations are tested against conventional practices and new information about to the site emerges. Promotes local creativity.
Contact point	Contact farmers that are supposed to train other farmers by passing on external information.	Groups of interested farmers that farm on a daily basis through generating local study circles.
Time frame	Continuously, forever, on a two-week regular cycle not based on any natural phenology.	A pre-defined period. Usually on a weekly basis over a season. FFS may be longer than a season, but never less than one season integrated with the crop phenology.
Pedagogy	Training: Use of static pre-determined demonstrations and in field examples to show and tell.	Education: A focus on underlying principles that allow farmers to derive and adopt recommendations within their own dynamic their ecological, social, and economic realities.
Evaluation	At best indirect: based on measuring delivery and funds spent.	Pre- and post-testing. Community self-surveying. Identifiable indicators defined in terms of system-critical factors. Internal rates of return.
Training site	Demonstration field, training centers, home of Contact Farmer, static not revisited in time or observed in terms of any ongoing process.	A shared field in which the FFS uses to dynamically validate and test new management methods over the entire season (e.g. decisions during one part of the season can be verified by yield cuts).
Long term objectives	Increase food production, etc.	Nurture groups that will continue to address agricultural and community problems on their own and with technical backstopping. “Farmers as the subject of development”
Research	Primary source of information is research stations assumed to develop representative models that are widely applicable.	A process and consequence of local testing and within-community/ecosystem learning.

 

Concepts of Rural Development:

1. Rural development involves more than just agricultural growth; it encompasses improvements in various aspects of rural life, including income, standard of living, infrastructure, education, and health.
2. It aims to transform rural areas economically, socially, politically, and spiritually.
3. Rural development is not limited to agriculture but includes the overall improvement of rural communities.
4. It focuses on uplifting specific groups, particularly the rural poor, such as small and marginal farmers, tenants, and landless individuals.

Objectives of Rural Development:

1. Providing social and economic infrastructure.
2. Increasing the income of rural families sustainably.
3. Creating additional employment opportunities in rural areas.
4. Mobilizing rural masses for effective coping with life’s challenges and changes.
5. Improving services for rural populations.
6. Enhancing the knowledge and skills of rural people.
7. Ensuring the availability and equitable distribution of essential goods and services.
8. Boosting purchasing power and improving its distribution.
9. Expanding economic and social opportunities for individuals in rural areas.

Genesis of Rural Development:

1. Rural development is a dynamic process involving various programs and projects.
2. It aims to empower rural communities to become self-reliant.
3. Collaboration among agencies, organizations, and local communities is essential.
4. The focus is on extending development benefits to the most marginalized rural inhabitants.

Importance of Rural Development:

1. Most people in developing countries reside in rural areas, making rural development crucial for overall national development.
2. It aims to increase per capita income and raise living standards in rural communities.
3. Planned programs, including non-formal education, are essential components of rural development initiatives.

Problems in Rural Development:

1. High levels of illiteracy among rural populations hinder development efforts.
2. Inadequate communication infrastructure in rural areas poses a challenge.
3. Limited funding and staff for farmer training programs.
4. Resistance to change in traditional societies impedes progress.
5. Lack of effective leadership in illiterate traditional societies.
6. Poor linkage between scientists and extension agencies.
7. Organizational constraints hamper effective implementation.
8. Inadequate transport and facilities for field staff in rural areas.
9. Inexperienced and unskilled extension staff limit support to rural communities.
10. Lack of cooperation between different rural development programs complicates efforts.

Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY):

• Introduction: Centrally sponsored scheme launched on April 1, 1999, focusing on self-employment.
• Objectives:
  1. Assist rural people, especially women and youth, in self-employment.
  2. Establish numerous micro-enterprises.
• Salient Features:

• • Combination of six earlier programs.
  • Funded on a 75:25 basis between the Centre and State Governments.
  • Target group: Poor families below the Poverty Line (BPL) in rural areas.
  • Emphasis on self-help groups (SHGs).

Indira Awas Yojana (IAY):

• Introduction: Launched in May 1985 to provide houses to rural BPL families.
• Objectives: Provide housing assistance to the rural poor.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA):

• Introduction: Formulated in 2005 to provide 100 days of wage employment in a year to rural households.
• Objectives: Enhance livelihood security by providing guaranteed wage employment.
• Salient Features:
  • Legal framework with a rights-based approach.
  • Covers 100 days of guaranteed wage employment.
  • Decentralized planning and transparent implementation.

Prime Ministers’ Rozgar Yojana (PMRY):

• Introduction: Announced on August 15, 1993, to provide self-employment to educated unemployed youth.
• Objectives: Provide self-employment opportunities to unemployed youth.
• Criteria for Selection:
  • Coverage: Nationwide.
  • Eligibility: Unemployed educated individuals aged 18-40 years.
  • Funding: Up to Rs. 1 lakh for business sector projects.

District Rural Development Agency (DRDA):

• Objective: Oversee and manage the implementation of anti-poverty programs at the district level.
• Mission: Strengthen and professionalize DRDAs for effective implementation.
• Duties:
  • Formulate policy guidelines.
  • Release funds.
  • Organize conferences and workshops.

Integrated Watershed Development Programme (IWDP):

• Introduction: Aims to promote overall economic development and improve socio-economic conditions in resource-poor areas.
• Objectives: Develop wastelands/degraded lands on a watershed basis and mitigate adverse climatic effects.
• Brief History: Initiated in 1989, focusing on land and water resource management for sustainable development.

Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Area (PURA):

• Introduction: Proposed by former President APJ Abdul Kalam to address rural-urban migration.
• Objectives:
  • Provide high-cost technology to villages.
  • Improve connectivity and create employment opportunities.
  • Treat rural development as corporate social responsibility.
• Goals: Make rural areas as attractive as cities and achieve overall development by 2020.

Communication, deriving from the Latin word “communis,” meaning common, implies establishing shared understanding among individuals. It’s a deliberate effort to create common ground over ideas, facts, emotions, or other content. The communication process involves a sender (or source) and a receiver, aligning to convey and interpret messages effectively.

Various models of communication offer frameworks to understand this process:

1. Aristotle’s Model: Involves a speaker, speech, and audience.
2. Shannon-Weaver Model: Features source, transmitter, signal, receiver, and destination.
3. Berlo’s Model: Includes source, encoder, message, channel, decoder, and receiver.
4. Schramm’s Model: Consists of source, encoder, signal, decoder, and destination.
5. Leagan’s Model: Comprises communicator, message, channel, treatment, audience, and response.
6. Rogers and Shoemaker’s Model: Incorporates source, message, channel, receiver, and effects.

The communication process entails several elements:

1. The Communicator: Initiates communication, possessing knowledge, trustworthiness, interest, and planning skills.
2. Message: Conveys information or ideas, needing clarity, relevance, and alignment with audience understanding.
3. Channels of Communication: Physical or virtual means through which messages travel, requiring accuracy, selection, and feedback.
4. Treatment of Messages: Refinement of message presentation for clarity, understanding, and realism.
5. The Audience: Intended receivers of messages, with characteristics influencing communication effectiveness.
6. Audience Response: Reactions or actions elicited from the audience, crucial for assessing communication impact.

Barriers to communication can be categorized as:

• Related to the Communicator: Environmental factors, organization, correctness, and social responsibility standards.
• Related to Message Transmission: Improper channel handling or selection, physical distractions, and parallel channel usage.
• Related to the Receiver: Audience attention, cooperation, homogeneity, and attitude towards the communicator.

In agricultural journalism, the dissemination of agricultural information through various media serves to educate and inform farmers, policymakers, and other stakeholders. News, as timely information of interest, can be categorized into hard news, soft news, features, profiles, human interest stories, and backgrounders, each with its advantages and limitations.

Stages in the Adoption Process

• Five Stages (North Central Rural Sociology Sub Committee, 1955):
  • Awareness: Farmer learns about a new idea but lacks details.
  • Interest: Farmer seeks more information about the idea.
  • Evaluation: Farmer mentally applies the idea to their situation and decides if it’s worth trying.
  • Trial: Farmer applies the idea on a small scale to test its effectiveness.
  • Adoption: Satisfied with the results, the farmer fully integrates the idea into their practices.

Innovation-Decision Process

• Five Stages (Rogers, 1971):
  • Knowledge: Farmer is exposed to the innovation and learns how it works.
  • Persuasion: Farmer forms an attitude towards the innovation (favorable or unfavorable).
  • Decision: Farmer decides to adopt or reject the innovation (often through a small-scale trial).
  • Implementation: Farmer puts the innovation into practice.
  • Confirmation: Farmer seeks reinforcement for their decision or changes their mind if exposed to conflicting information.

Adopter Categories (Rogers, 1971)

• Based on innovativeness:
  • Innovators (Venturesome): Early adopters who take risks.
  • Early Adopters (Respectable): Quick to use new ideas in their situations.
  • Early Majority (Deliberate): Adopt new ideas after some time.
  • Late Majority (Skeptical): Adopt new ideas just after the average person.
  • Laggards (Traditional): Least likely to adopt new ideas.

Factors Influencing Adoption Process

• Personal: Age, education, psychological characteristics, values, and attitudes.
• Situational: Nature of the practice (complexity, cost, compatibility, etc.), farm income, farm size, tenure status, information sources, and level of living.
• Social: Social values, local leadership, and social contacts.

Concepts Related to Adoption and Diffusion

• Dissonance: Internal conflict about adopting or rejecting an innovation.
• Discontinuance: Rejecting an innovation after adopting it.
• Rate of Adoption: Speed at which an innovation is adopted by a community.
• Over Adoption: Excessive use of an innovation.

Agriculture Extension Teaching Methods

• Classification by Use:
  • Individual Contact (Farm and Home Visits)
  • Group Contact (Meetings, Training)
  • Mass Contact (Mass Media)

Factors influencing the selection and utilization of extension teaching methods are crucial for effective communication in agricultural extension. Here’s a breakdown:

1. Behavioral Changes Expected: The desired change in knowledge, skills, or attitude dictates the choice of teaching methods. Mass media methods are suitable for attitude and knowledge changes, while individual and group methods are effective for skill development.
2. Nature of Subject Matter: Whether understanding requires visual aids or not influences method selection.
3. Nature of Audience: Factors like age, education, interest, and experience affect the choice of methods tailored to audience characteristics.
4. Number of Persons: Mass contact methods are preferred when covering a large population in a short time, while individual/group methods are slower but more effective for smaller groups.
5. Availability of Media: The presence of media like radio, TV, and publications among the audience affects communication effectiveness.
6. Extension Worker Skills: Proficiency in using different methods influences their selection.
7. Cost: Some methods may be costlier than others, impacting their feasibility and utilization.
8. Basic Facilities: Methods requiring specific facilities like electricity or projection screens depend on their availability.

Audio-visual aids play a crucial role in communication:

• Audio Aids: Include devices like tape recorders and public address systems for conveying messages through sound.
• Visual Aids: Range from chalkboards and bulletin boards to pictures, photographs, and diagrams, aiding in visual communication.
• Audio-Visual Aids: Combine sound and visuals, like drama, puppet shows, filmstrips, and videos, enhancing engagement and understanding.

Media mix strategies involve combining different communication channels:

• Media Mix: Utilizing various media channels like newspapers, radio, television, and posters to disseminate information effectively.
• Strategies: Combining mass media with interpersonal channels, using a mix of printed materials, radio programs, and demonstrations to reinforce learning.

By understanding these factors and utilizing appropriate teaching methods and media mix strategies, agricultural extension professionals can enhance communication effectiveness and facilitate knowledge transfer to farmers and stakeholders.